Introduction
Material and methods
Subjects
Women during early follicular phase | Women during midluteal phase | Men | |
---|---|---|---|
Number of subjects | 12 | 12 | 12 |
Age | 30.8 ± 5.0 | 30.8 ± 5.0 | 33.2 ± 6.2 |
Intelligence, more visuo-spatially based estimate measure (CFT) | 118.3 ± 13.7 | 118.3 ± 13.7 | 124.0 ± 10.2 |
Intelligence, more verbally based estimate measure (MWT-B) | 112.0 ± 13.6 | 112.0 ± 13.6 | 117.0 ± 11.9 |
Testosterone in ng/mla
| 0.34 ± 0.13 | 0.37 ± 0.13 | 5.10 ± 1.45*
|
Estradiol in pg/mlb
| 46.75 ± 11.10*
| 129.00 ± 56.81*
| 36.0 ± 6.30*
|
Progesterone in ng/mlc
| 0.65 ± 0.15 | 10.02 ± 5.70*
| 0.70 ± 0.20 |
Reproduction Quantity score | 47.7 ± 21.0 | 48.3 ± 18.9 | 50.8 ± 22.3 |
Reproduction Quality score | 9.3 ± 4.0 | 9.8 ± 3.1 | 10.2 ± 2.8 |
Reproduction Quality/quality ratio | 0.23 ± 0.12 | 0.24 ± 0.14 | 0.23 ± 0.09 |
Novel generation Quantity score | 40.6 ± 19.3 | 44.8 ± 16.8 | 44.7 ± 15.7 |
Novel generation Quality score | 4.7 ± 1.4 | 6.6 ± 2.1 | 5.9 ± 2.0 |
Novel generation Quality/quality ratio | 0.16 ± 0.15 | 0.17 ± 0.09 | 0.14 ± 0.06 |
Sex steroid hormone assessment
Experimental design
Analysis of behavioral data
MRI data acquisition
MRI data analysis
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Step 1: Within-group activation patterns were assessed by one sample t tests in a random-effects analysis. The alpha error was set to P < 0.05 corrected (false discovery rate) and the contiguity threshold to ≥20 voxels. To allow comparability with other studies, in particular to assure independence from sample sizes, T values were converted into Cohen’s d effect sizes according to Cohen’s \(d = 2\tilde t/\sqrt {\left( {df} \right)} \) (Cohen 1998; Kline 2004), using the vbm2 toolbox provided by C. Gaser, University of Jena, Germany (http://dbm.neuro.uni-jena.de). T and d values were overlaid on a single-subject template provided in MRIcron (Rorden et al. 2007). Anatomical localizations of activated brain regions were identified using the MSU toolbox based on the Talairach daemon (Lancaster et al. 2000).
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Step 2: Differences between groups were calculated within the regions that showed activation in the group results (step 1), using an ANOVA model. The alpha error was set to P < 0.001 uncorrected and the contiguity threshold to ≥20 voxels. To assure comparability across studies, differences are reported as T and Cohen’s d values and were overlaid on a single-subject template provided in MRIcron (see above).
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Step 3: The correlation of brain activation with hormone levels for estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone was investigated in areas activated in the group results (from step 1). Simple regression (correlation) analysis was performed for testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone. For descriptive analysis, unthresholded T values were converted into correlation coefficients r using the cg_t2x.m script provided by C. Gaser, University of Jena, Germany (http://dbm.neuro.uni-jena.de). The corresponding P values were determined from r values using the online calculator for scientists at Graphpad Software (http://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/pvalue1.cfm, degrees of freedom = 10). Correlation coefficients (and equivalent P values) were overlaid on a single-subject template provided in MRIcron (Rorden et al. 2007).
Results
Task performance
Within-group activation patterns during synonym generation
Women (early follicular phase) | Women (midluteal phase of menstrual cycle) | Men (random effect analysis) | ||||||||||||||||||
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Anatomical region | BA | Coordinates | C-size |
Z
| Anatomical region | BA | Coordinates | C-size |
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| Anatomical region | BA | Coordinates | C-size |
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Lateral frontal lobe (L) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Inferior + middle frontal gyrus | 13, 44–47 | −56 | 22 | 4 | 1,529 | 4.48 | Inferior and middle frontal, precentral gyrus | 6, 9, 13, 44–47 | −42 | 34 | 2 | 6,047 | 5.60 | Inferior, middle, and superior frontal, precentral gyrus | 6, 9, 13, 44–47 | −40 | 0 | 52 | 5122 | 5.13 |
Precentral and middle frontal gyrus | 6, 9 | −44 | 2 | 44 | 49 | 3.55 | – | Superior and middle frontal gyrus | 10 | −30 | 48 | 18 | 70 | 3.24 | ||||||
Lateral frontal lobe (R) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Inferior frontal gyrus | 13, 47 | 30 | 24 | −4 | 248 | 4.46 | Inferior and middle frontal, precentral gyrus | 6, 9, 44–47 | Included in | 6,047 | 5.60 | Right inferior frontal gyrus | 13, 44–47 | 34 | 20 | −4 | 833 | 4.83 | ||
−42 | 34 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||
Medial frontal lobe (bilateral) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Medial and superior frontal gyrus (SMA), cingulate gyrus | 6, 8, 32 | 12 | 24 | 42 | 609 | 3.83 | Medial and superior frontal gyrus (SMA), cingulate gyrus | 6, 8, 32 | −6 | 14 | 52 | 1,294 | 5.07 | Medial and superior frontal gyrus (SMA), cingulate gyrus | 6, 8, 32 | −2 | 10 | 56 | 1,976 | 5.09 |
Temporal lobe (bilateral) | ||||||||||||||||||||
– | Inferior and middle temporal gyrus | 20, 37 | −54 | −40 | −16 | 40 | 2.67 | Left superior temporal gyrus | 22, 38, | Included in | 5122 | 5.13 | ||||||||
−40 | 0 | 52 | ||||||||||||||||||
– | – | Left middle temporal gyrus | 21, 22 | −56 | −38 | −10 | 321 | 4.55 | ||||||||||||
– | – | Right superior temporal gyrus | 22, 38, | Included in | 833 | 4.83 | ||||||||||||||
34 | 20 | −4 | ||||||||||||||||||
Parietal lobe (bilateral) | ||||||||||||||||||||
– | Left inferior + superior parietal lobule | 7, 40 | −36 | −52 | 40 | 198 | 3.87 | Left inferior and superior parietal lobule | 7, 19 | −32 | −66 | 42 | 34 | 3.25 | ||||||
Occipital lobe (bilateral) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Fusiform, middle occipital lingual gyrus | 19, 37 | −22 | −54 | −12 | 122 | 4.12 | Bilateral lingual, inferior and middle occipital gyrus, cuneus | 17, 18, 19 | −6 | −98 | 2 | 4,929 | 5.08 | Left lingual gyrus and cuneus | 17, 18 | −12 | −104 | 2 | 53 | 3.2 |
Middle occipital and lingual gyrus | 17– 19 | 28 | −58 | −4 | 194 | 4.55 | Bilateral lingual, inferior and middle occipital gyrus, cuneus | 17, 18, 19 | Included in | 6,047 | Right cuneus | 17 | 16 | −94 | 2 | 22 | 2.93 | |||
−42 | 34 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||
Basal ganglia (bilateral) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Lentiform nucleus, thalamus, caudate | – | −16 | −4 | −2 | 294 | 3.90 | Lentiform nucleus, thalamus, caudate | – | Included in | 6,047 | 5.60 | Right globus pallidus | – | 14 | −2 | −4 | 30 | 3.61 | ||
−42 | 34 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||
Caudate | – | 18 | −34 | 18 | 36 | 3.54 | Caudate | – | 22 | −30 | 18 | 52 | 4.02 | Left globus pallidus | – | −16 | 0 | −2 | 69 | 3.34 |
Brainstem (bilateral) | ||||||||||||||||||||
– | – | Bilateral brainstem and pons | – | −12 | −18 | −18 | 72 | 3.55 | ||||||||||||
Cerebellum (bilateral) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Bilateral culmen, cerebellar lingual | – | 0 | −48 | −18 | 32 | 3.74 | Bilateral cerebellar lingual, tonsils | – | Included in | 6,047 | 5.60 | Right uvula, declive, culmen. | – | 20 | −66 | −32 | 85 | 3.96 | ||
−42 | 34 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||
– | Right cerebellar tonsil | – | 20 | −42 | −44 | 35 | 3.45 | Bilateral cerebellar lingual and culmen | – | 2 | −46 | −18 | 25 | 3.06 |
Between-group activation patterns during synonym generation
Groups and regions | Brodmann area | MNI coordinates | Cluster size |
T score |
Z score | Effect size d
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Men versus women in the early follicular phase | ||||||||
(a) Left middle frontal and precentral gyrus | 9 | −40 | 18 | 32 | 155 | 4.67 | 3.85 | 2.82 |
−40 | 4 | 40 | 3.94 | 3.39 | 2.38 | |||
Men versus women in the midluteal phase | ||||||||
(b) Left middle frontal and precentral gyrus | 9 | −40 | 20 | 32 | 63 | 4.50 | 3.75 | 2.71 |