Several antihypertensive and antiproteinuric therapies have proven effective. Blood pressure control per se has a proteinuria-lowering effect, as demonstrated by three large trials: the MDRD study [
25], the Appropriate Blood Pressure Control in Diabetes (ABCD) study [
49], and the African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension (AASK) [
32]. A low blood pressure goal, i.e. <125/75 mmHg in adults, either reduced proteinuria absolutely by 50% [
25] or prevented the two- to threefold increase in proteinuria observed in patients with the more conventional blood pressure goal of 140/90 mmHg [
49]. A low blood pressure goal appears to be very well tolerated by the vast majority of patients and in terms of cardiovascular outcomes; the “J curve” phenomenon (a slight increase of cardiovascular events in patients achieving a very low blood pressure level) seems to be confined to aged patients with advanced atherosclerosis.
The goal of any antiproteinuric treatment is to reduce proteinuria as much as possible, ideally to <300 mg/m
2/day. This degree of proteinuria reduction appears to be associated with the maximal renoprotective effect [
35,
36]. Whereas the different classes of antihypertensive agents are comparable with respect to their blood pressure-lowering efficacy, they differ markedly regarding their effects on proteinuria and CKD progression [
32,
35,
50,
51].
Blockade of the renin-angiotensin system
Antagonists of the RAS, such as ACE inhibitors and, more recently, angiotensin II type I receptor blockers (ARB) have become pharmacotherapeutics of first choice in adults [
15] as well as children with CKD by virtue of their pharmacological properties. They significantly reduce blood pressure as well as urinary protein excretion and have an excellent safety profile, which is almost indistinguishable from placebo. In adults with essential hypertension, treatment with RAS antagonists has been associated with the best quality of life among all antihypertensive agents.
RAS antagonists suppress the local angiotensin II tone (ACE inhibitor) or action (ARB). This results in a reduction of intraglomerular pressure and proteinuria, diminished local release of cytokines and chemokines, and alleviated activation of inflammatory pathways, with consequently attenuated glomerular hypertrophy and sclerosis, tubulointerstitial inflammation, and fibrosis [
8], as well as in a normalized central nervous sympathetic tone by reduced renal afferent nerve stimulation. In addition, oxidative stress is reduced independently of the blood-pressure-lowering effect [
52].
In adults with diabetic or nondiabetic kidney disease, several randomized trials demonstrate a more effective reduction of proteinuria, usually by 30–40%, by ACE inhibitors compared with placebo and/or other antihypertensive agents [
35]. This is associated with a significantly reduced rate of renal failure progression in the long term [
31,
35,
53‐
61].
Very similar results were obtained in randomized studies comparing ARBs with placebo or conventional antihypertensive agents in diabetic nephropathy [
51,
62,
63]. It has been reasoned that ACE inhibitors might have a specific renoprotective advantage by inducing accumulation of vasodilatory and antifibrotic bradykinins; however, the course of GFR was similar in two clinical trials comparing ACE inhibitors and ARB therapy [
64,
65]. The size of the advantage of RAS antagonists over other antihypertensive agents is still under debate [
66]. The risk of doubling serum creatinine or attaining ESRD is typically reduced by 30–40%, but the superiority of RAS antagonists is related to the prevailing degree of proteinuria [
35,
36]. In adults, ACE inhibitors are believed to provide better renoprotection than other antihypertensive agents in patients with proteinuria exceeding 500 mg/day.
However, there is some evidence that previous studies may not have used sufficiently high ACE inhibitor doses to achieve effective RAS suppression at the kidney tissue level and obtain a maximal renoprotective effect. Furthermore, at least a subset of patients appears to develop partial secondary resistance to ACE inhibition (aldosterone escape by compensatory upregulation of ACE-independent angiotensin II production) [
67‐
69]. It is currently an open issue whether such patients would benefit from the primary use of ARBs alone or in combination with ACE inhibitors.
Whereas the maximal antiproteinuric and renoprotective effects of ACE inhibitors and ARBs seem to occur at doses that are supramaximal with respect to maximal antihypertensive action, regulatory authority approval is usually available only for the indication of hypertension in the respective dose range. Therefore, it is generally recommended to administer these drugs, after confirming tolerability in a short run-in period, at their highest approved doses [
32,
70].
Limited information is available regarding the efficacy of RAS antagonists for renoprotection in children with CKD. Small uncontrolled studies showed stable renal function in children with sequelae of hemolytic uremic syndrome during long-term ACE inhibitor treatment [
71], stable GFR during 2.5 years of losartan treatment in children with proteinuric CKD [
72], and attenuated histopathological progression in children with IgA nephropathy receiving combined RAS blockade [
73]. Data from the ItalKid Study did not show a significant modification of CKD progression by ACE inhibitor treatment in children with hypodysplastic kidney disease [
74] compared with matched untreated subjects. However, the overall CKD progression rate in the total cohort was very slow (< –2 ml/min per 1.73 m
2 per year), thereby making the detection of significant differences (ACE inhibitors -1.08 vs. non-ACE inhibitors 1.80; not significant) difficult. In addition, no information was available with respect to the types and dosages of ACE inhibitors used and the prevailing degree of proteinuria.
The ESCAPE trial demonstrated efficient blood pressure and proteinuria reduction by ramipril in almost 400 children with CKD [
17]. However, an interim analysis of the 3-year results revealed a gradual rebound of proteinuria after the second treatment year. This effect was dissociated from a persistently good blood pressure control and may limit the long-term renoprotective efficacy of ACE inhibitor monotherapy in pediatric chronic kidney disorders [
28].
Aldosterone antagonists also lower blood pressure by RAS suppression. Whereas the use of spironolactone is limited by endocrine side effects, the new aldosterone antagonist, eplerenone, has minimal affinity for progesterone and androgen receptors. Apart from the risk of hyperkalemia, reported side effects are similar to placebo [
75]. Combined therapy of eplerenone and an ACE inhibitor increases patient survival in adults with congestive heart failure [
76]. However, combination therapy appears limited in CKD patients due to the potentiated risk of hyperkalemia [
77,
78].
Aliskiren, a renin-antagonist, blocking the conversion from angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, has been shown to effectively lower blood pressure in animals and humans. The effect on blood pressure is comparable with that of ARBs, and combination therapy of aliskiren and valsartan at maximum recommended doses provided significantly greater reductions in blood pressure than did monotherapy, with a tolerability profile similar to that of aliskiren or valsartan alone [
79]. However, there are no data on the effect of aliskiren on renal disease progression in adults nor on its applicability in children available to date.
Calcium-channel blockers
Calcium-channel blockers (CCBs) are safe and can achieve blood pressure goals in patients with CKD. However, CCBs of the dihydropyridine type (amlodipine, nifedipine) fail to reduce progression of chronic renal failure and may even increase proteinuria and promote more rapid CKD progression [
33]. Therefore, dihydropyridine CCBs may be acceptable as first-line antihypertensive monotherapy only in nonproteinuric patients and should be avoided unless in combination with RAS antagonists to improve blood pressure control in proteinuric patients [
70]. In contrast, nondihydropyridine CCB (diltiazem, verapamil) may have some antiproteinuric effect and may be therefore renoprotective [
33]. However, data are not conclusive. An antiproteinuric effect was not observed in type 2 diabetes [
80], and amlodipine exerted a renoprotective effect comparable with ACE inhibitors in one study [
81].
Combination therapy
Because hypertension is a multifactorial disorder, monotherapy is often not effective in lowering blood pressure or reducing proteinuria to the target range. Treatment with a single antihypertensive agent usually controls blood pressure in less than half of the patients. According to the JNC7 guidelines, subjects with blood pressure >20/10 mmHg above the normal range (i.e. >160/100 mmHg in adults) should be started on combination drug therapy [
13]. In CKD patients, RAS antagonists are most commonly combined with a diuretic or with a CCB, whereas their combination with a beta-blocker usually does not exert an additive effect on blood pressure control. Fixed-dose combination preparations are becoming increasingly popular in antihypertensive therapy and may help maximize treatment adherence and efficacy.
Combined RAS blockade using ACE inhibitors and ARB concomitantly has only a minor effect on blood pressure (3–4 mmHg vs. monotherapy) but increases the antiproteinuric effect of ACE inhibitors or ARB monotherapy by 30–40% [
64,
84‐
86]. The prospective randomized Combination Treatment of Angiotensin II Receptor Blocker and Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibitor in Non-diabetic Renal Disease (COOPERATE) trial, performed in adults with nondiabetic nephropathies, suggested that combination therapy may also provide better long-term renoprotection [
64]. However, in most ACE inhibitor/ARB combination studies, it remained unclear whether maximally efficient single-drug doses were used, a formal prerequisite to demonstrate true synergism of the two drug classes. The few published studies assessed the effects of single-drug dose escalation followed by combined administration of an ACE inhibitor and an ARB at maximally effective single doses found synergistic antiproteinuric effects of combined treatment [
87]. Otherwise, a recent study demonstrated additional proteinuria reduction by escalating candesartan exposure to an ultrahigh dose [
88]. Notably, raising the dose from 16 to 32 mg daily had no effect on proteinuria, whereas a further increase from 32 to 64 mg was highly effective, suggesting that the dose–response relationship may be nonlinear. Hence, the issue of whether ACE inhibitor and ARB combination therapies have a synergistic renoprotective potential remains an exciting field of clinical research.
Restoration of blood pressure day–night rhythm
In view of the fact that nondipping of nocturnal blood pressure is an independent risk factor for CKD progression, effects of the timing of application of antihypertensive drugs may be an issue of interest. Even using agents with a long half-time and recommended administration on a once-daily basis, evening administration lowers nighttime blood pressure more effectively, increasing the day–night ratio and partially restoring the physiological nocturnal dipping pattern. However, these effects seem to differ for individual antihypertensive drug classes. Whereas bedtime administration of CCBs and ACE inhibitors tends to restore the dipping pattern, evening dosing of beta-blockers has no effect on the circadian blood pressure rhythm [
89]. In a substudy of the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) trial, adult patients were evaluated by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) after evening administration of the ACE inhibitor ramipril. A more marked blood pressure reduction during nighttime was observed, compatible with the notion that the beneficial effects of ramipril on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the HOPE study were related to the 8% increase in the day–night ratio of blood pressure obtained with evening dosing [
90]. Although this association appears firm, it is as yet unclear whether pharmacological restoration of the dipping pattern will result in any long-term clinical benefit for cardiovascular health in general and for renal function preservation in CKD. However, it is of note that the antiproteinuric efficacy of the ARB valsartan was found correlated with the increase in blood pressure day–night ratio induced by evening dosing [
91].
Treatment of dyslipidemia
General measures to prevent dyslipidemia in CKD patients include prevention or treatment of malnutrition and correction of metabolic acidosis, hyperparathyroidism, and anemia, all of which may contribute to dyslipidemia [
92‐
94]. In addition, referring to evidence from the general population, therapeutic life-style modification is recommended for adults and children with CKD-related dyslipidemia [
95]. However, the lipid-lowering effect of life-style modifications in CKD patients is usually not impressive. Lipid-lowering medical treatment is commonly prescribed in adults with CKD based on the evident benefit of this approach for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease in the general adult population. Statin therapy is effective in reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in adults with moderate to severe CKD although not in patients with ESRD [
96,
97].
With respect to renoprotection, experimental evidence suggests that statins may retard renal disease progression not only by their lipid-lowering but also by lipid-independent pleiotropic effects. Statins inhibit signaling molecules at several points in inflammatory pathways. Anti-inflammatory effects, reduction of oxidative stress, and improved endothelial function are thought to be partially responsible both for CVD risk reduction and improved renal function [
98]. Furthermore, there is also evidence for synergistic effects of statins and RAS inhibitors on the prevention of renal disease progression [
99]. However, a recent meta-analysis of published clinical trials concluded that the intrinsic antiproteinuric and renoprotective effects of statins, albeit significant, are quantitatively small [
100]. To date, no studies have evaluated the usefulness of statins in children with progressive nephropathies.
Erythropoietin treatment
In rats undergoing acute ischemic renal injury, pretreatment with recombinant human erythropoietin (rhuEPO) reduces renal dysfunction and morphological damage. This effect appears to be mainly mediated by a reduction of apoptotic cell death [
101]. Darbepoetin, a long-acting EPO analog, ameliorated podocyte injury and decreased proteinuria by maintenance of the podocyte actin cytoskeleton and nephrin expression in puromycin-induced nephrotic rats [
102]. Even more interesting than treatment of acute renal failure may be tissue protection in chronic renal failure. In a recently published clinical trial, early initiation of rhuEPO therapy in patients with CKD and mild to moderate anemia significantly slowed down the progression of renal disease and delayed the need for renal replacement therapy [
103]. However, other data in patients with more advanced CKD and high-dose rhuEPO treatment revealed no beneficial effect on renal survival [
104]. The role of EPO in pediatric CKD progression has not been defined yet.
Nutrition and vitamin D supplementation
For decades, low-protein diets have been prescribed for preventing CKD progression. However, the effects of these diets on CKD progression and delay of ESRD are still inconclusive. One of the largest trials, the MDRD trial, could not prove efficacy of a low-protein diet on progression in nondiabetic kidney disease [
105], whereas a recent Cochrane Review [
106] found a risk reduction of renal death in patients with protein restriction. Thus, the progression rate was not significantly influenced by protein restriction, whereas renal replacement therapy could be postponed. In children, reducing protein intake to the maximal acceptable lower limit was ineffective to slow down renal disease progression [
9,
107]. Further reductions may be effective but not acceptable. Furthermore, therapeutic strategies of protein reduction in children may be conflicting, since a low-protein diet bears the risk of low calorie intake, whereas a high calorie intake is needed for optimal growth. Therefore, at present, it seems not to be justified to prescribe low-protein diets to children early in the course of chronic renal failure.
Some studies in adult CKD patients suggest that dietary phosphorus restriction may stabilize kidney function [
108]. However, conclusions in this regard could not be drawn from studies in children [
109]. A high calcium–phosphorus product may be detrimental to renal survival by aggravating intrarenal vasculopathy as well as by causing tubulointerstitial calcifications, which may stimulate tubulointerstitial inflammation and fibrosis. In view of these pathophysiological associations, it is currently discussed whether calcium-free phosphate binders may have some renoprotective potential in patients with CKD. Sevelamer may prove beneficial beyond phosphate lowering due to its pleiotropic effects, which include lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory properties. Treatment with nonhypercalcemic doses of active vitamin D attenuates renal failure progression in chronically uremic rats. This effect may be brought about by the immune modulatory and antifibrotic properties of vitamin D. In addition, a negative endocrine regulation of the RAS through 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D
3 has been reported [
110]. In humans, an antiproteinuric effect of oral paricalcitol was demonstrated in adult CKD patients [
111]. These exciting experimental and early clinical findings provide an additional rationale beyond mineral metabolism for close monitoring and early intervention to maintain mineral, vitamin D, and PTH homeostasis in CKD [
109].