Skip to main content
Hauptrubriken
CME Facharzt-Training Webinare Zeitschriften Bücher e.Medpedia Podcast
Service
Jobbörse Info & Hilfe
Fachgebiete
Anästhesiologie Allgemeinmedizin Arbeitsmedizin Augenheilkunde Chirurgie Dermatologie Gynäkologie und Geburtshilfe HNO Innere Medizin Kardiologie Neurologie Onkologie und Hämatologie Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie Pädiatrie Pathologie Psychiatrie Radiologie Rechtsmedizin Urologie Zahnmedizin
Themen
Typ-2-Diabetes und Adipositas Klimawandel und Gesundheit Neues aus dem Markt COVID-19 Praxis und Beruf Seltene Erkrankungen GOÄ & EBM Panorama
Sammlungen
Kasuistiken Algorithmen & Infografiken Blickdiagnosen Arthropedia FlapFinder (für Dermatochirurgen) Videos Kongressberichterstattung Medizin für Apothekerinnen und Apotheker Für Ärztinnen und Ärzte in Weiterbildung Für Medizinstudierende

Live-Webinar "Urologie und Sexualmedizin in der Praxis"

Häufige urologisch-sexualmedizinische Themen in der Praxis sind das Thema des MMW-Webinars am 5. Juni von 17.30 bis 19 Uhr. Konkret geht es um die Frage, wann bei Harnwegsinfektionen auf Antibiotika verzichtet werden kann, und um ein Update zur Therapie von Libido- und Potenzstörungen des Mannes. Der dritte Vortrag behandelt sexuell übertragbare Krankheiten. Stellen Sie Ihre Fragen an die Experten und sammeln Sie 2 CME-Punkte. Jetzt gleich anmelden!
Erweiterte Suche
Anmelden
nach oben
Neurotherapeutics
Erschienen in: Neurotherapeutics 4/2020

01.10.2020 | Review

Treatment of Dystonia: Medications, Neurotoxins, Neuromodulation, and Rehabilitation

verfasst von: Ian O. Bledsoe, Aaron C. Viser, Marta San Luciano

Erschienen in: Neurotherapeutics | Ausgabe 4/2020

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Dystonia is a complex disorder with numerous presentations occurring in isolation or in combination with other neurologic symptoms. Its treatment has been significantly improved with the advent of botulinum toxin and deep brain stimulation in recent years, though additional investigation is needed to further refine these interventions. Medications are of critical importance in forms of dopa-responsive dystonia but can be beneficial in other forms of dystonia as well. Many different rehabilitative paradigms have been studied with variable benefit. There is growing interest in noninvasive stimulation as a potential treatment, but with limited long-term benefit shown to date, and additional research is needed. This article reviews existing evidence for treatments from each of these categories. To date, there are many examples of incomplete response to available treatments, and improved therapies are needed.
Anhänge
Nur mit Berechtigung zugänglich
Literatur
1.
Bell SA, Tudur Smith C. A comparison of interventional clinical trials in rare versus non-rare diseases: an analysis of ClinicalTrials.gov. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2014;9:170.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
2.
Jinnah HA, Albanese A, Bhatia KP, Cardoso F, Da Prat G, de Koning TJ, et al. Treatable inherited rare movement disorders. Mov Disord. 2018;33(1):21-35.PubMedCrossRef
3.
4.
5.
Mochel F, Hainque E, Gras D, Adanyeguh IM, Caillet S, Héron B, et al. Triheptanoin dramatically reduces paroxysmal motor disorder in patients with GLUT1 deficiency. Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry. 2016;87(5):550-3.PubMedCrossRef
6.
Leen WG, Mewasingh L, Verbeek MM, Kamsteeg EJ, van de Warrenburg BP, Willemsen MA. Movement disorders in GLUT1 deficiency syndrome respond to the modified Atkins diet. Mov Disord. 2013;28(10):1439-42.PubMedCrossRef
7.
Kölker S, Christensen E, Leonard JV, Greenberg CR, Boneh A, Burlina AB, et al. Diagnosis and management of glutaric aciduria type I--revised recommendations. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2011;34(3):677-94.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
8.
Morris AA, Kozich V, Santra S, Andria G, Ben-Omran TI, Chakrapani AB, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2017;40(1):49-74.PubMedCrossRef
9.
Baumgartner MR, Horster F, Dionisi-Vici C, Haliloglu G, Karall D, Chapman KA, et al. Proposed guidelines for the diagnosis and management of methylmalonic and propionic acidemia. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2014;9:130.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
10.
11.
Tabarki B, Alfadhel M, AlShahwan S, Hundallah K, AlShafi S, AlHashem A. Treatment of biotin-responsive basal ganglia disease: Open comparative study between the combination of biotin plus thiamine versus thiamine alone. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2015;19(5):547-52.PubMedCrossRef
12.
Wassenberg T, Molero-Luis M, Jeltsch K, Hoffmann GF, Assmann B, Blau N, et al. Consensus guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2017;12(1):12.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
13.
Wijemanne S, Jankovic J. Dopa-responsive dystonia—clinical and genetic heterogeneity. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2015;11(7):414-24.PubMedCrossRef
14.
Willemsen MA, Verbeek MM, Kamsteeg E-J, de Rijk-van Andel JF, Aeby A, Blau N, et al. Tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency: a treatable disorder of brain catecholamine biosynthesis. Brain. 2010;133(6):1810-22.PubMedCrossRef
15.
Almannai M, Felemban R, Saleh MA, Faqeih EA, Alasmari A, AlHashem A, et al. 6-Pyruvoyltetrahydropterin Synthase Deficiency: Review and Report of 28 Arab Subjects. Pediatr Neurol. 2019;96:40-7.PubMedCrossRef
16.
Friedman J, Roze E, Abdenur JE, Chang R, Gasperini S, Saletti V, et al. Sepiapterin reductase deficiency: a treatable mimic of cerebral palsy. Ann Neurol. 2012;71(4):520-30.PubMedCrossRef
17.
18.
Thöny B, Blau N. Mutations in the BH4-metabolizing genes GTP cyclohydrolase I, 6-pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin synthase, sepiapterin reductase, carbinolamine-4a-dehydratase, and dihydropteridine reductase. Human Mutation. 2006;27(9):870-8.PubMedCrossRef
19.
Nygaard TG, Marsden CD, Fahn S. Dopa-responsive dystonia: long-term treatment response and prognosis. Neurology. 1991;41(2 ( Pt 1)):174-81.PubMedCrossRef
20.
Ichinose H, Ohye T, Takahashi E, Seki N, Hori T, Segawa M, et al. Hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation caused by mutations in the GTP cyclohydrolase I gene. Nat Genet. 1994;8(3):236-42.PubMedCrossRef
21.
Segawa M, Hosaka A, Miyagawa F, Nomura Y, Imai H. Hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation. Adv Neurol. 1976;14:215-33.PubMed
22.
Neville BGR, Parascandalo R, Farrugia R, Felice A. Sepiapterin reductase deficiency: a congenital dopa-responsive motor and cognitive disorder. Brain. 2005;128(10):2291-6.PubMedCrossRef
23.
Bonafe L, Thony B, Penzien JM, Czarnecki B, Blau N. Mutations in the sepiapterin reductase gene cause a novel tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent monoamine-neurotransmitter deficiency without hyperphenylalaninemia. Am J Hum Genet. 2001;69(2):269-77.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
24.
Hanihara T, Inoue K, Kawanishi C, Sugiyama N, Miyakawa T, Onishi H, et al. 6-Pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin synthase deficiency with generalized dystonia and diurnal fluctuation of symptoms: a clinical and molecular study. Mov Disord. 1997;12(3):408-11.PubMedCrossRef
25.
Brüggemann N, Spiegler J, Hellenbroich Y, Opladen T, Schneider SA, Stephani U, et al. Beneficial Prenatal Levodopa Therapy in Autosomal Recessive Guanosine Triphosphate Cyclohydrolase 1 Deficiency. Archives of Neurology. 2012;69(8):1071-5.PubMedCrossRef
26.
Kim R, Jeon B, Lee W-W. A Systematic Review of Treatment Outcome in Patients with Dopa-responsive Dystonia (DRD) and DRD-Plus. Movement Disorders Clinical Practice. 2016;3(5):435-42.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
27.
Tadic V, Kasten M, Bruggemann N, Stiller S, Hagenah J, Klein C. Dopa-responsive dystonia revisited: diagnostic delay, residual signs, and nonmotor signs. Arch Neurol. 2012;69(12):1558-62.PubMedCrossRef
28.
Trender-Gerhard I, Sweeney MG, Schwingenschuh P, Mir P, Edwards MJ, Gerhard A, et al. Autosomal-dominant GTPCH1-deficient DRD: clinical characteristics and long-term outcome of 34 patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2009;80(8):839-45.
29.
Dong W, Luo B, Qiu C, Jiang X, Qu X, Zhang L, et al. Deep Brain Stimulation for the Treatment of Dopa-Responsive Dystonia: A Case Report and Literature Review. World Neurosurg. 2020;136:394-8.e5.CrossRef
30.
Pons R, Syrengelas D, Youroukos S, Orfanou I, Dinopoulos A, Cormand B, et al. Levodopa-induced dyskinesias in tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency. Mov Disord. 2013;28(8):1058-63.PubMedCrossRef
31.
Chien YH, Lee NC, Tseng SH, Tai CH, Conway AM, Pykett M, et al. AGIL-AADC gene therapy results in sustained improvements in motor and developmental milestones through 5 years in children with AADC deficiency. Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 2019;405:27.CrossRef
32.
Bull PC, Thomas GR, Rommens JM, Forbes JR, Cox DW. The Wilson disease gene is a putative copper transporting P–type ATPase similar to the Menkes gene. Nature Genetics. 1993;5(4):327-37.PubMedCrossRef
33.
Weiss KH, Thurik F, Gotthardt DN, Schafer M, Teufel U, Wiegand F, et al. Efficacy and safety of oral chelators in treatment of patients with Wilson disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013;11(8):1028-35.e1-2.PubMedCrossRef
34.
35.
36.
Clark LN, Wang Y, Karlins E, Saito L, Mejia-Santana H, Harris J, et al. Frequency of LRRK2 mutations in early- and late-onset Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2006;67(10):1786-91.PubMedCrossRef
37.
Bernard G, Vanasse M, Chouinard S. A case of secondary dystonia responding to levodopa. J Child Neurol. 2010;25(6):780-1.PubMedCrossRef
38.
Kitahara M, Shimohata T, Tokunaga J, Nishizawa M. Cervical dystonia associated with spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 successfully treated with levodopa: a case report. Mov Disord. 2009;24(14):2163-4.PubMedCrossRef
39.
Peall KJ, Kurian MA, Wardle M, Waite AJ, Hedderly T, Lin J-P, et al. SGCE and myoclonus dystonia: motor characteristics, diagnostic criteria and clinical predictors of genotype. J Neurol. 2014;261(12):2296-304.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
40.
Luciano MS, Ozelius L, Sims K, Raymond D, Liu L, Saunders-Pullman R. Responsiveness to levodopa in epsilon-sarcoglycan deletions. Movement Disorders. 2009;24(3):425-8.PubMedCrossRef
41.
Nardocci N, Zorzi G, Barzaghi C, Zibordi F, Ciano C, Ghezzi D, et al. Myoclonus-dystonia syndrome: clinical presentation, disease course, and genetic features in 11 families. Mov Disord. 2008;23(1):28-34.PubMedCrossRef
42.
Rughani AI, Lozano AM. Surgical treatment of myoclonus dystonia syndrome. Mov Disord. 2013;28(3):282-7.PubMedCrossRef
43.
Heinzen EL, Arzimanoglou A, Brashear A, Clapcote SJ, Gurrieri F, Goldstein DB, et al. Distinct neurological disorders with ATP1A3 mutations. The Lancet Neurology. 2014;13(5):503-14.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
44.
Zúñiga-Ramírez C, Kramis-Hollands M, Mercado-Pimentel R, González-Usigli HA, Sáenz-Farret M, Soto-Escageda A, et al. Generalized Dystonia and Paroxysmal Dystonic Attacks due to a Novel ATP1A3 Variant. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y). 2019;9:https://​doi.​org/​10.​7916/​tohm.​v0.​723.
45.
Termsarasab P, Yang AC, Frucht SJ. Intermediate Phenotypes of ATP1A3 Mutations: Phenotype-Genotype Correlations. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y). 2015;5:336.CrossRef
46.
Lang AE. Dopamine agonists and antagonists in the treatment of idiopathic dystonia. Adv Neurol. 1988;50:561.PubMed
47.
Fan X, Donsante Y, Jinnah HA, Hess EJ. Dopamine Receptor Agonist Treatment of Idiopathic Dystonia: A Reappraisal in Humans and Mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2018;365(1):20-6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
48.
49.
Pinninti NR, Faden J, Adityanjee A. Are Second-Generation Antipsychotics Useful in Tardive Dystonia? CLINICAL NEUROPHARMACOLOGY. 2015;38(5):183-97.PubMedCrossRef
50.
Girotti F, Scigliano G, Nardocci N, Angelini L, Broggi G, Giovannini P, et al. Idiopathic dystonia: neuropharmacological study. J Neurol. 1982;227(4):239-47.PubMedCrossRef
51.
Giménez-Roldán S, Mateo D, Orbe M, Muñoz-Blanco JL, Hípola D. Acute pharmacologic tests in cranial dystonia. Adv Neurol. 1988;49:451.PubMed
52.
53.
Aguilar L, Lorenzo C, Fernández-Ovejero R, Roncero C, Montejo AL. Tardive Dyskinesia After Aripiprazole Treatment That Improved With Tetrabenazine, Clozapine, and Botulinum Toxin. Front Pharmacol. 2019;10:281.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
54.
Jankovic J. Treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders with tetrabenazine: A double-blind crossover study. Annals of Neurology. 1982;11(1):41-7.PubMedCrossRef
55.
Chen JJ, Ondo WG, Dashtipour K, Swope DM. Tetrabenazine for the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders: a review of the literature. Clin Ther. 2012;34(7):1487-504.PubMedCrossRef
56.
Leung JG, Breden EL. Tetrabenazine for the Treatment of Tardive Dyskinesia. Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 2011;45(4):525-31.CrossRef
57.
Jankovic J. Dopamine depleters in the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2016;17(18):2461-70.PubMedCrossRef
58.
Fernandez HH, Factor SA, Hauser RA, Jimenez-Shahed J, Ondo WG, Jarskog LF, et al. Randomized controlled trial of deutetrabenazine for tardive dyskinesia: The ARM-TD study. Neurology. 2017;88(21):2003-10.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
59.
Anderson KE, Stamler D, Davis MD, Factor SA, Hauser RA, Isojärvi J, et al. Deutetrabenazine for treatment of involuntary movements in patients with tardive dyskinesia (AIM-TD): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017;4(8):595-604.PubMedCrossRef
60.
Fernandez HH, Stamler D, Davis MD, Factor SA, Hauser RA, Jimenez-Shahed J, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of deutetrabenazine for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry. 2019;90(12):1317-23.PubMedPubMedCentral
61.
Hauser RA, Factor SA, Marder SR, Knesevich MA, Ramirez PM, Jimenez R, et al. KINECT 3: A Phase 3 Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Valbenazine for Tardive Dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry. 2017;174(5):476-84.PubMedCrossRef
62.
Kane JM, Correll CU, Liang GS, Burke J, O'Brien CF. Efficacy of Valbenazine (NBI-98854) in Treating Subjects with Tardive Dyskinesia and Schizophrenia or Schizoaffective Disorder. Psychopharmacology bulletin. 2017;47(3):69-76.PubMedPubMedCentral
63.
Correll CU, Josiassen RC, Liang GS, Burke J, O'Brien CF. Efficacy of Valbenazine (NBI-98854) in Treating Subjects with Tardive Dyskinesia and Mood Disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2017;47(3):53-60.PubMedPubMedCentral
64.
O'Brien CF, Jimenez R, Hauser RA, Factor SA, Burke J, Mandri D, et al. NBI-98854, a selective monoamine transport inhibitor for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Mov Disord. 2015;30(12):1681-7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
65.
Josiassen RC, Kane JM, Liang GS, Burke J, O'Brien CF. Long-Term Safety and Tolerability of Valbenazine (NBI-98854) in Subjects with Tardive Dyskinesia and a Diagnosis of Schizophrenia or Mood Disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2017;47(3):61-8.PubMedPubMedCentral
66.
Solmi M, Pigato G, Kane JM, Correll CU. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with VMAT-2 inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2018;12:1215-38.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
67.
Truong DD, Sandroni P, van den Noort S, Matsumoto RR. Diphenhydramine is effective in the treatment of idiopathic dystonia. Arch Neurol. 1995;52(4):405-7.PubMedCrossRef
68.
Pisani A, Bernardi G, Ding J, Surmeier DJ. Re-emergence of striatal cholinergic interneurons in movement disorders. Trends Neurosci. 2007;30(10):545-53.PubMedCrossRef
69.
Deffains M, Bergman H. Striatal cholinergic interneurons and cortico-striatal synaptic plasticity in health and disease. Mov Disord. 2015;30(8):1014-25.PubMedCrossRef
70.
Corner BD. Dystonia musculorum deformans in siblings; treated with artane (trihexyphenidyl). Proc R Soc Med. 1952;45(7):451-2.PubMed
71.
Burke RE, Fahn S, Marsden CD. Torsion dystonia: a double-blind, prospective trial of high-dosage trihexyphenidyl. Neurology. 1986;36(2):160-4.PubMedCrossRef
72.
Air EL, Ostrem JL, Sanger TD, Starr PA. Deep brain stimulation in children: experience and technical pearls. Journal of neurosurgery Pediatrics. 2011;8(6):566-74.PubMedCrossRef
73.
74.
Garibotto V, Romito LM, Elia AE, Soliveri P, Panzacchi A, Carpinelli A, et al. In vivo evidence for GABA(A) receptor changes in the sensorimotor system in primary dystonia. Mov Disord. 2011;26(5):852-7.PubMedCrossRef
75.
Greene P, Shale H, Fahn S. Analysis of open-label trials in torsion dystonia using high dosages of anticholinergics and other drugs. Mov Disord. 1988;3(1):46-60.PubMedCrossRef
76.
Greene PE, Fahn S. Baclofen in the treatment of idiopathic dystonia in children. Mov Disord. 1992;7(1):48-52.PubMedCrossRef
77.
Rosse RB, Allen A, Lux WE. Baclofen treatment in a patient with tardive dystonia. J Clin Psychiatry. 1986;47(9):474-5.PubMed
78.
Brennan MJ, Ruff P, Sandyk R. Efficacy of a combination of sodium valproate and baclofen in Meige's disease (idiopathic orofacial dystonia). Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1982;285(6345):853.PubMedCentralCrossRef
79.
Narayan RK, Loubser PG, Jankovic J, Donovan WH, Bontke CF. Intrathecal baclofen for intractable axial dystonia. Neurology. 1991;41(7):1141-2.PubMedCrossRef
80.
Butler C, Campbell S. Evidence of the effects of intrathecal baclofen for spastic and dystonic cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2000;42(9):634-45.CrossRef
81.
Walker RH, Danisi FO, Swope DM, Goodman RR, Germano IM, Brin MF. Intrathecal baclofen for dystonia: Benefits and complications during six years of experience. Movement Disorders. 2000;15(6):1242-7.PubMedCrossRef
82.
Hou JGG, Ondo W, Jankovic J. Intrathecal baclofen for dystonia. Movement Disorders. 2001;16(6):1201-2.PubMed
83.
Leland Albright A, Barry MJ, Shafron DH, Ferson SS. Intrathecal baclofen for generalized dystonia. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2001;43(10):652-7.CrossRef
84.
Albright AL. Intraventricular baclofen infusion for dystonia. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg. 2006;105(1 Suppl):71-4.PubMed
85.
Turner M, Nguyen HS, Cohen-Gadol AA. Intraventricular baclofen as an alternative to intrathecal baclofen for intractable spasticity or dystonia: outcomes and technical considerations. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;10(4):315-9.PubMedCrossRef
86.
Chuang C, Fahn S, Frucht SJ. The natural history and treatment of acquired hemidystonia: report of 33 cases and review of the literature. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2002;72(1):59-67.CrossRef
87.
Daniele A, Albanese A, Gainotti G, Gregori B, Bartolomeo P. Zolpidem in Parkinson's disease. The Lancet. 1997;349(9060):1222-3.CrossRef
88.
An JY, Kim J-S, Kim Y-I, Lee KS. Successful treatment of the Meige syndrome with oral zolpidem monotherapy. Movement Disorders. 2008;23(11):1619-21.PubMedCrossRef
89.
Evidente VGH. Zolpidem improves dystonia in "Lubag" or X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism syndrome. NEUROLOGY. 2002;58(4):662-3.PubMedCrossRef
90.
Miyazaki Y, Sako W, Asanuma K, Izumi Y, Miki T, Kaji R. Efficacy of zolpidem for dystonia: a study among different subtypes. Frontiers in neurology. 2012;3:58.PubMedPubMedCentral
91.
Frucht SJ, Bordelon Y, Houghton WH, Reardan D. A pilot tolerability and efficacy trial of sodium oxybate in ethanol-responsive movement disorders. Movement Disorders. 2005;20(10):1330-7.PubMedCrossRef
92.
Mascia MM, Carmagnini D, Defazio G. Cannabinoids and dystonia: an issue yet to be defined. NEUROLOGICAL SCIENCES. 2020;41(4):783-7.PubMedCrossRef
93.
Consroe P, Sandyk R, Snider SR. Open label evaluation of cannabidiol in dystonic movement disorders. International Journal of Neuroscience. 1986;30(4):277-82.CrossRef
94.
Fox SH, Kellett M, Moore AP, Crossman AR, Brotchie JM. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to assess the potential of cannabinoid receptor stimulation in the treatment of dystonia. Mov Disord. 2002;17(1):145-9.PubMedCrossRef
95.
Zadikoff C, Wadia PM, Miyasaki J, Chen R, Lang AE, So J, et al. Cannabinoid, CB1 agonists in cervical dystonia: Failure in a phase IIa randomized controlled trial. Basal Ganglia. 2011;1(2):91-5.CrossRef
96.
Lucetti C, Nuti A, Gambaccini G, Bernardini S, Brotini S, Manca ML, et al. Mexiletine in the treatment of torticollis and generalized dystonia. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2000;23(4):186-9.PubMedCrossRef
97.
Park JE, Srivanitchapoom P, Maurer CW, Mathew P, Sackett J, Paine R, et al. Lack of efficacy of levetiracetam in oromandibular and cranial dystonia. Acta Neurol Scand. 2017;136(2):103-8.PubMedCrossRef
98.
Hainque E, Vidailhet M, Cozic N, Charbonnier-Beaupel F, Thobois S, Tranchant C, et al. A randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover trial of zonisamide in myoclonus-dystonia. Neurology. 2016;86(18):1729-35.PubMedCrossRef
99.
Simpson DM, Hallett M, Ashman EJ, Comella CL, Green MW, Gronseth GS, et al. Practice guideline update summary: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of blepharospasm, cervical dystonia, adult spasticity, and headache: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2016;86(19):1818-26.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
100.
Comella CL, Buchman AS, Tanner CM, Brown-Toms NC, Goetz CG. Botulinum toxin injection for spasmodic torticollis: increased magnitude of benefit with electromyographic assistance. Neurology. 1992;42(4):878-82.PubMedCrossRef
101.
Jankovic J. Treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord. 2004;19 Suppl 8:S109-15.PubMedCrossRef
102.
Duarte GS, Rodrigues FB, Ferreira JJ, Costa J. Adverse events with botulinum toxin treatment in cervical dystonia: How much should we blame placebo? Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2018;56:16-9.PubMedCrossRef
103.
Bhidayasiri R. Treatment of complex cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin: involvement of deep-cervical muscles may contribute to suboptimal responses. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2011;17 Suppl 1:S20-4.PubMedCrossRef
104.
Glass GA, Ku S, Ostrem JL, Heath S, Larson PS. Fluoroscopic, EMG-guided injection of botulinum toxin into the longus colli for the treatment of anterocollis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2009;15(8):610-3.PubMedCrossRef
105.
Allison SK, Odderson IR. Ultrasound and Electromyography Guidance for Injection of the Longus Colli With Botulinum Toxin for the Treatment of Cervical Dystonia. Ultrasound Q. 2016;32(3):302-6.PubMedCrossRef
106.
Schramm A, Huber D, Mobius C, Munchau A, Kohl Z, Baumer T. Involvement of obliquus capitis inferior muscle in dystonic head tremor. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2017;44:119-23.PubMedCrossRef
107.
Walter U, Dudesek A, Fietzek UM. A simplified ultrasonography-guided approach for neurotoxin injection into the obliquus capitis inferior muscle in spasmodic torticollis. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2018;125(7):1037-42.PubMedCrossRef
108.
Jankovic J, Truong D, Patel AT, Brashear A, Evatt M, Rubio RG, et al. Injectable DaxibotulinumtoxinA in Cervical Dystonia: A Phase 2 Dose-Escalation Multicenter Study. Mov Disord Clin Pract. 2018;5(3):273-82.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
109.
110.
Karp BI, Alter K. Botulinum Toxin Treatment of Blepharospasm, Orofacial/Oromandibular Dystonia, and Hemifacial Spasm. Semin Neurol. 2016;36(1):84-91.PubMedCrossRef
111.
Ozzello DJ, Giacometti JN. Botulinum Toxins for Treating Essential Blepharospasm and Hemifacial Spasm. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2018;58(1):49-61.PubMedCrossRef
112.
Albanese A, Bentivoglio AR, Colosimo C, Galardi G, Maderna L, Tonali P. Pretarsal injections of botulinum toxin improve blepharospasm in previously unresponsive patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1996;60(6):693-4.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
113.
Tan EK, Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin A in patients with oromandibular dystonia: long-term follow-up. Neurology. 1999;53(9):2102-7.PubMedCrossRef
114.
Comella CL. Systematic review of botulinum toxin treatment for oromandibular dystonia. Toxicon. 2018;147:96-9.PubMedCrossRef
115.
Moscovich M, Chen ZP, Rodriguez R. Successful treatment of open jaw and jaw deviation dystonia with botulinum toxin using a simple intraoral approach. J Clin Neurosci. 2015;22(3):594-6.PubMedCrossRef
116.
Scorr LM, Silver MR, Hanfelt J, Sperin E, Freeman A, Jinnah HA, et al. Pilot Single-Blind Trial of AbobotulinumtoxinA in Oromandibular Dystonia. Neurotherapeutics. 2018;15(2):452-8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
117.
Blitzer A. Spasmodic dysphonia and botulinum toxin: experience from the largest treatment series. Eur J Neurol. 2010;17 Suppl 1:28-30.PubMedCrossRef
118.
Payne S, Tisch S, Cole I, Brake H, Rough J, Darveniza P. The clinical spectrum of laryngeal dystonia includes dystonic cough: observations of a large series. Mov Disord. 2014;29(6):729-35.PubMedCrossRef
119.
Blitzer A, Brin MF, Fahn S, Lovelace RE. Localized injections of botulinum toxin for the treatment of focal laryngeal dystonia (spastic dysphonia). Laryngoscope. 1988;98(2):193-7.PubMedCrossRef
120.
Troung DD, Rontal M, Rolnick M, Aronson AE, Mistura K. Double-blind controlled study of botulinum toxin in adductor spasmodic dysphonia. Laryngoscope. 1991;101(6 Pt 1):630-4.PubMed
121.
Tierney WS, Bryson PC, Nelson R, Kaplan SE, Benninger MS, Milstein CF. Respiratory Laryngeal Dystonia: Characterization and Diagnosis of a Rare Neurogenic Disorder. Laryngoscope. 2020.
122.
Woisard V, Liu X, Bes MC, Simonetta-Moreau M. Botulinum toxin injection in laryngeal dyspnea. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2017;274(2):909-17.PubMedCrossRef
123.
Hallett M, Benecke R, Blitzer A, Comella CL. Treatment of focal dystonias with botulinum neurotoxin. Toxicon. 2009;54(5):628-33.PubMedCrossRef
124.
Lungu C, Karp BI, Alter K, Zolbrod R, Hallett M. Long-term follow-up of botulinum toxin therapy for focal hand dystonia: outcome at 10 years or more. Mov Disord. 2011;26(4):750-3.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
125.
Kruisdijk JJ, Koelman JH, Ongerboer de Visser BW, de Haan RJ, Speelman JD. Botulinum toxin for writer's cramp: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial and 1-year follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(3):264-70.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
126.
Tsui JK, Bhatt M, Calne S, Calne DB. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer's cramp: a double-blind study. Neurology. 1993;43(1):183-5.PubMedCrossRef
127.
Cole R, Hallett M, Cohen LG. Double-blind trial of botulinum toxin for treatment of focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord. 1995;10(4):466-71.PubMedCrossRef
128.
Yoshimura DM, Aminoff MJ, Olney RK. Botulinum toxin therapy for limb dystonias. Neurology. 1992;42(3 Pt 1):627-30.PubMedCrossRef
129.
Schuele S, Jabusch HC, Lederman RJ, Altenmuller E. Botulinum toxin injections in the treatment of musician's dystonia. Neurology. 2005;64(2):341-3.PubMedCrossRef
130.
Marion MH, Afors K, Sheehy MP. Problems of treating writer's cramp with botulinum toxin injections: results from 10 years of experience. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2003;159(10 Pt 1):923-7.
131.
Molloy FM, Shill HA, Kaelin-Lang A, Karp BI. Accuracy of muscle localization without EMG: implications for treatment of limb dystonia. Neurology. 2002;58(5):805-7.PubMedCrossRef
132.
Rieu I, Degos B, Castelnovo G, Vial C, Durand E, Pereira B, et al. Incobotulinum toxin A in Parkinson's disease with foot dystonia: A double blind randomized trial. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2018;46:9-15.PubMedCrossRef
133.
Gupta AD, Visvanathan R. Botulinum toxin for foot dystonia in patients with Parkinson's disease having deep brain stimulation: A case series and a pilot study. J Rehabil Med. 2016;48(6):559-62.PubMedCrossRef
134.
Datta Gupta A, Tucker G, Koblar S, Visvanathan R, Cameron ID. Spatiotemporal Gait Analysis and Lower Limb Functioning in Foot Dystonia Treated with Botulinum Toxin. Toxins (Basel). 2018;10(12).
135.
Schneider SA, Edwards MJ, Grill SE, Goldstein S, Kanchana S, Quinn NP, et al. Adult-onset primary lower limb dystonia. Mov Disord. 2006;21(6):767-71.PubMedCrossRef
136.
Katz M, Byl NN, San Luciano M, Ostrem JL. Focal task-specific lower extremity dystonia associated with intense repetitive exercise: a case series. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2013;19(11):1033-8.PubMedCrossRef
137.
Cooper I. 20-year follow-up study of the neurosurgical treatment of dystonia musculorum deformans. In: Eldridge R FS, editor. Dystonia: Advances in Neurology. New York: Raven Press; 1976. p. 423-52.
138.
Andrew J, Fowler CJ, Harrison MJ. Stereotaxic thalamotomy in 55 cases of dystonia. Brain. 1983;106 ( Pt 4):981-1000.PubMedCrossRef
139.
Gros C, Frerebeau P, Perez-Dominguez E, Bazin M, Privat J. Long term results of stereotaxic surgery for infantile dystonia and dyskinesia. Neurochirurgia (Stuttg). 1976;19:171-8.PubMed
140.
Tasker RR, Doorly T, Yamashiro K. Thalamotomy in generalized dystonia. In: Fahn S, Marsden CD, Calne DB, editors. Dystonia 2: Advances in Neurology. New York: Raven Press; 1988. p. 615-31.
141.
Broggi G, Angelini L, Giorgi C. Neurological and psychological side effects after stereotactic thalamotomy in patients with cerebral palsy. Neurosurgery. 1980;7(2):127-34.PubMedCrossRef
142.
Broggi G, Angelini L, Bono R, Giorgi C, Nardocci N, Franzini A. Long term results of stereotactic thalamotomy for cerebral palsy. Neurosurgery. 1983;12(2):195-202.PubMedCrossRef
143.
Krack P, Vercueil L. Review of the functional surgical treatment of dystonia. Eur J Neurol. 2001;8(5):389-99.PubMedCrossRef
144.
Cardoso F, Jankovic J, Grossman RG, Hamilton WJ. Outcome after stereotactic thalamotomy for dystonia and hemiballismus. Neurosurgery. 1995;36(3):501-7; discussion 7-8.PubMed
145.
Ondo WG, Desaloms JM, Jankovic J, Grossman RG. Pallidotomy for generalized dystonia. Mov Disord. 1998;13(4):693-8.PubMedCrossRef
146.
Lin JJ, Lin SZ, Chang DC. Pallidotomy and generalized dystonia. Mov Disord. 1999;14(6):1057-9.PubMedCrossRef
147.
148.
149.
Shimizu T, Maruo T, Miura S, Kishima H, Ushio Y, Goto S. Stereotactic Lesioning of the Thalamic Vo Nucleus for the Treatment of Writer's Cramp (Focal Hand Dystonia). Front Neurol. 2018;9:1008.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
150.
Horisawa S, Ochiai T, Goto S, Nakajima T, Takeda N, Fukui A, et al. Safety and long-term efficacy of ventro-oral thalamotomy for focal hand dystonia: A retrospective study of 171 patients. Neurology. 2019;92(4):e371-e7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
151.
Cury RG, Kalia SK, Shah BB, Jimenez-Shahed J, Prashanth LK, Moro E. Surgical treatment of dystonia. Expert Rev Neurother. 2018;18(6):477-92.PubMedCrossRef
152.
153.
Krishna V, Sammartino F, Rezai A. A Review of the Current Therapies, Challenges, and Future Directions of Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Technology: Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment. JAMA Neurol. 2018;75(2):246-54.PubMedCrossRef
154.
Fasano A, Llinas M, Munhoz RP, Hlasny E, Kucharczyk W, Lozano AM. MRI-guided focused ultrasound thalamotomy in non-ET tremor syndromes. Neurology. 2017;89(8):771-5.PubMedCrossRef
155.
Horisawa S, Yamaguchi T, Abe K, Hori H, Sumi M, Konishi Y, et al. A single case of MRI-guided focused ultrasound ventro-oral thalamotomy for musician's dystonia. J Neurosurg. 2018;131(2):384-6.PubMedCrossRef
156.
Kupsch A, Benecke R, Muller J, Trottenberg T, Schneider GH, Poewe W, et al. Pallidal deep-brain stimulation in primary generalized or segmental dystonia. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(19):1978-90.PubMedCrossRef
157.
Vidailhet M, Vercueil L, Houeto JL, Krystkowiak P, Lagrange C, Yelnik J, et al. Bilateral, pallidal, deep-brain stimulation in primary generalised dystonia: a prospective 3 year follow-up study. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(3):223-9.PubMedCrossRef
158.
Volkmann J, Mueller J, Deuschl G, Kuhn AA, Krauss JK, Poewe W, et al. Pallidal neurostimulation in patients with medication-refractory cervical dystonia: a randomised, sham-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(9):875-84.PubMedCrossRef
159.
Isaias IU, Alterman RL, Tagliati M. Outcome predictors of pallidal stimulation in patients with primary dystonia: the role of disease duration. Brain. 2008;131(Pt 7):1895-902.PubMedCrossRef
160.
Volkmann J, Wolters A, Kupsch A, Muller J, Kuhn AA, Schneider GH, et al. Pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with primary generalised or segmental dystonia: 5-year follow-up of a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11(12):1029-38.PubMedCrossRef
161.
Bruggemann N, Kuhn A, Schneider SA, Kamm C, Wolters A, Krause P, et al. Short- and long-term outcome of chronic pallidal neurostimulation in monogenic isolated dystonia. Neurology. 2015;84(9):895-903.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
162.
Contarino MF, Smit M, van den Dool J, Volkmann J, Tijssen MA. Unmet Needs in the Management of Cervical Dystonia. Frontiers in neurology. 2016;7:165.PubMedPubMedCentral
163.
Tagliati M, Krack P, Volkmann J, Aziz T, Krauss JK, Kupsch A, et al. Long-Term management of DBS in dystonia: Response to stimulation, adverse events, battery changes, and special considerations. Movement Disorders. 2011;26(S1):S54-S62.PubMedCrossRef
164.
Lee DJ, Lozano CS, Dallapiazza RF, Lozano AM. Current and future directions of deep brain stimulation for neurological and psychiatric disorders. J Neurosurg. 2019;131(2):333-42.PubMedCrossRef
165.
Mueller J, Skogseid IM, Benecke R, Kupsch A, Trottenberg T, Poewe W, et al. Pallidal deep brain stimulation improves quality of life in segmental and generalized dystonia: Results from a prospective, randomized sham-controlled trial. Movement Disorders. 2008;23(1):131-4.PubMedCrossRef
166.
Vidailhet M, Vercueil L, Houeto JL, Krystkowiak P, Benabid AL, Cornu P, et al. Bilateral deep-brain stimulation of the globus pallidus in primary generalized dystonia. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(5):459-67.PubMedCrossRef
167.
Reese R, Gruber D, Schoenecker T, Bazner H, Blahak C, Capelle HH, et al. Long-term clinical outcome in meige syndrome treated with internal pallidum deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord. 2011;26(4):691-8.PubMedCrossRef
168.
Ostrem JL, Marks WJ, Jr., Volz MM, Heath SL, Starr PA. Pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with cranial-cervical dystonia (Meige syndrome). Mov Disord. 2007;22(13):1885-91.PubMedCrossRef
169.
Wang X, Zhang Z, Mao Z, Yu X. Deep brain stimulation for Meige syndrome: a meta-analysis with individual patient data. J Neurol. 2019;266(11):2646-56.PubMedCrossRef
170.
Trottenberg T, Volkmann J, Deuschl G, Kühn AA, Schneider G-H, Müller J, et al. Treatment of severe tardive dystonia with pallidal deep brain stimulation. Neurology. 2005;64(2):344-6.PubMedCrossRef
171.
Pouclet-Courtemanche H, Rouaud T, Thobois S, Nguyen J-m, Brefel-Courbon C, Chereau I, et al. Long-term efficacy and tolerability of bilateral pallidal stimulation to treat tardive dyskinesia. Neurology. 2016;86.
172.
Gruber D, Südmeyer M, Deuschl G, Falk D, Krauss JK, Mueller J, et al. Neurostimulation in tardive dystonia/dyskinesia: A delayed start, sham stimulation-controlled randomized trial. Brain Stimul. 2018;11(6):1368-77.PubMedCrossRef
173.
174.
Jinnah HA, Alterman R, Klein C, Krauss JK, Moro E, Vidailhet M, et al. Deep brain stimulation for dystonia: a novel perspective on the value of genetic testing. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2017;124(4):417-30.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
175.
Reich MM, Horn A, Lange F, Roothans J, Paschen S, Runge J, et al. Probabilistic mapping of the antidystonic effect of pallidal neurostimulation: a multicentre imaging study. Brain. 2019;142(5):1386-98.PubMedCrossRef
176.
Ostrem JL, Racine CA, Glass GA, Grace JK, Volz MM, Heath SL, et al. Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in primary cervical dystonia. Neurology. 2011;76(10):870-8.PubMedCrossRef
177.
Ostrem JL, San Luciano M, Dodenhoff KA, Ziman N, Markun LC, Racine CA, et al. Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in isolated dystonia: A 3-year follow-up study. Neurology. 2017;88(1):25-35.PubMedCrossRef
178.
Hedera P, Phibbs FT, Dolhun R, Charles PD, Konrad PE, Neimat JS, et al. Surgical targets for dystonic tremor: Considerations between the globus pallidus and ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 2013;19(7):684-6.CrossRef
179.
Fasano A, Bove F, Lang AE. The treatment of dystonic tremor: a systematic review. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2014;85(7):759-69.PubMedCrossRef
180.
Tierney TS, Lozano AM. Surgical treatment for secondary dystonia. Mov Disord. 2012;27(13):1598-605.PubMedCrossRef
181.
Koy A, Hellmich M, Pauls KA, Marks W, Lin JP, Fricke O, et al. Effects of deep brain stimulation in dyskinetic cerebral palsy: a meta-analysis. Mov Disord. 2013;28(5):647-54.PubMedCrossRef
182.
Patel A, Deeb W, Okun MS. Deep Brain Stimulation Management of Essential Tremor with Dystonic Features. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y). 2018;8:557.CrossRef
183.
Sanger TD, Liker M, Arguelles E, Deshpande R, Maskooki A, Ferman D, et al. Pediatric Deep Brain Stimulation Using Awake Recording and Stimulation for Target Selection in an Inpatient Neuromodulation Monitoring Unit. Brain Sci. 2018;8(7).
184.
Wolf ME, Blahak C, Saryyeva A, Schrader C, Krauss JK. Deep brain stimulation for dystonia-choreoathetosis in cerebral palsy: Pallidal versus thalamic stimulation. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2019;63:209-12.PubMedCrossRef
185.
Brown EG, Bledsoe IO, Luthra NS, Miocinovic S, Starr PA, Ostrem JL. Cerebellar Deep Brain Stimulation for Acquired Hemidystonia. Mov Disord Clin Pract. 2020;7(2):188-93.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
186.
Starr PA, Turner RS, Rau G, Lindsey N, Heath S, Volz M, et al. Microelectrode-guided implantation of deep brain stimulators into the globus pallidus internus for dystonia: techniques, electrode locations, and outcomes. J Neurosurg. 2006;104(4):488-501.PubMedCrossRef
187.
Videnovic A, Metman LV. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: prevalence of adverse events and need for standardized reporting. Mov Disord. 2008;23(3):343-9.PubMedCrossRef
188.
Panov F, Gologorsky Y, Connors G, Tagliati M, Miravite J, Alterman RL. Deep brain stimulation in DYT1 dystonia: a 10-year experience. Neurosurgery. 2013;73(1):86-93; discussionPubMedCrossRef
189.
Zauber SE, Watson N, Comella CL, Bakay RA, Metman LV. Stimulation-induced parkinsonism after posteroventral deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus internus for craniocervical dystonia. J Neurosurg. 2009;110(2):229-33.PubMedCrossRef
190.
Berman BD, Starr PA, Marks WJ, Jr., Ostrem JL. Induction of bradykinesia with pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with cranial-cervical dystonia. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2009;87(1):37-44.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
191.
Starr PA, Markun LC, Larson PS, Volz MM, Martin AJ, Ostrem JL. Interventional MRI-guided deep brain stimulation in pediatric dystonia: first experience with the ClearPoint system. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;14(4):400-8.PubMedCrossRef
192.
Krack P, Volkmann J, Tinkhauser G, Deuschl G. Deep Brain Stimulation in Movement Disorders: From Experimental Surgery to Evidence-Based Therapy. Mov Disord. 2019;34(12):1795-810.PubMedCrossRef
193.
Pina-Fuentes D, Little S, Oterdoom M, Neal S, Pogosyan A, Tijssen MAJ, et al. Adaptive DBS in a Parkinson's patient with chronically implanted DBS: A proof of principle. Mov Disord. 2017;32(8):1253-4.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
194.
Neumann WJ, Huebl J, Brucke C, Ruiz MH, Kupsch A, Schneider GH, et al. Enhanced low-frequency oscillatory activity of the subthalamic nucleus in a patient with dystonia. Mov Disord. 2012;27(8):1063-6.PubMedCrossRef
195.
Silberstein P, Kuhn AA, Kupsch A, Trottenberg T, Krauss JK, Wohrle JC, et al. Patterning of globus pallidus local field potentials differs between Parkinson's disease and dystonia. Brain. 2003;126(Pt 12):2597-608.PubMedCrossRef
196.
Siebner HR, Tormos JM, Ceballos-Baumann AO, Auer C, Catala MD, Conrad B, et al. Low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex in writer's cramp. Neurology. 1999;52(3):529-37.PubMedCrossRef
197.
Murase N, Rothwell JC, Kaji R, Urushihara R, Nakamura K, Murayama N, et al. Subthreshold low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the premotor cortex modulates writer's cramp. Brain. 2005;128(Pt 1):104-15.PubMed
198.
Borich M, Arora S, Kimberley TJ. Lasting effects of repeated rTMS application in focal hand dystonia. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2009;27(1):55-65.PubMedPubMedCentral
199.
Veugen LC, Hoffland BS, Stegeman DF, van de Warrenburg BP. Inhibition of the dorsal premotor cortex does not repair surround inhibition in writer's cramp patients. Exp Brain Res. 2013;225(1):85-92.PubMedCrossRef
200.
Siebner HR, Filipovic SR, Rowe JB, Cordivari C, Gerschlager W, Rothwell JC, et al. Patients with focal arm dystonia have increased sensitivity to slow-frequency repetitive TMS of the dorsal premotor cortex. Brain. 2003;126(Pt 12):2710-25.PubMedCrossRef
201.
Kimberley TJ, Borich MR, Arora S, Siebner HR. Multiple sessions of low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in focal hand dystonia: clinical and physiological effects. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2013;31(5):533-42.PubMedPubMedCentral
202.
Havrankova P, Jech R, Walker ND, Operto G, Tauchmanova J, Vymazal J, et al. Repetitive TMS of the somatosensory cortex improves writer's cramp and enhances cortical activity. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2010;31(1):73-86.PubMed
203.
Linssen MW, van Gaalen J, Munneke MA, Hoffland BS, Hulstijn W, van de Warrenburg BP. A single session of cerebellar theta burst stimulation does not alter writing performance in writer's cramp. Brain. 2015;138(Pt 6):e355.PubMedCrossRef
204.
Koch G, Porcacchia P, Ponzo V, Carrillo F, Caceres-Redondo MT, Brusa L, et al. Effects of two weeks of cerebellar theta burst stimulation in cervical dystonia patients. Brain Stimul. 2014;7(4):564-72.PubMedCrossRef
205.
Pirio Richardson S, Tinaz S, Chen R. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in cervical dystonia: effect of site and repetition in a randomized pilot trial. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0124937.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
206.
Zittel S, Helmich RC, Demiralay C, Munchau A, Baumer T. Normalization of sensorimotor integration by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in cervical dystonia. J Neurol. 2015;262(8):1883-9.PubMedCrossRef
207.
Kranz G, Shamim EA, Lin PT, Kranz GS, Hallett M. Transcranial magnetic brain stimulation modulates blepharospasm: a randomized controlled study. Neurology. 2010;75(16):1465-71.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
208.
Sharma K, Cucca A, Lee A, Agarwal S, Frucht SJ, Biagioni MC. Transcranial magnetic stimulation therapy for focal leg dystonia: a case report. J Clin Mov Disord. 2019;6:1.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
209.
Buttkus F, Weidenmuller M, Schneider S, Jabusch HC, Nitsche MA, Paulus W, et al. Failure of cathodal direct current stimulation to improve fine motor control in musician's dystonia. Mov Disord. 2010;25(3):389-94.PubMedCrossRef
210.
Buttkus F, Baur V, Jabusch HC, de la Cruz Gomez-Pellin M, Paulus W, Nitsche MA, et al. Single-session tDCS-supported retraining does not improve fine motor control in musician's dystonia. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2011;29(2):85-90.PubMed
211.
Benninger DH, Lomarev M, Lopez G, Pal N, Luckenbaugh DA, Hallett M. Transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord. 2011;26(9):1698-702.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
212.
Sadnicka A, Hamada M, Bhatia KP, Rothwell JC, Edwards MJ. Cerebellar stimulation fails to modulate motor cortex plasticity in writing dystonia. Mov Disord. 2014;29(10):1304-7.PubMedCrossRef
213.
Rosset-Llobet J, Fabregas-Molas S, Pascual-Leone A. Effect of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Neurorehabilitation of Task-Specific Dystonia: A Double-Blind, Randomized Clinical Trial. Med Probl Perform Art. 2015;30(3):178-84.PubMedCrossRef
214.
Furuya S, Nitsche MA, Paulus W, Altenmuller E. Surmounting retraining limits in musicians' dystonia by transcranial stimulation. Ann Neurol. 2014;75(5):700-7.PubMedCrossRef
215.
Bradnam LV, Graetz LJ, McDonnell MN, Ridding MC. Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation to the cerebellum improves handwriting and cyclic drawing kinematics in focal hand dystonia. Front Hum Neurosci. 2015;9:286.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
216.
Angelakis E, Liouta E, Andreadis N, Leonardos A, Ktonas P, Stavrinou LC, et al. Transcranial alternating current stimulation reduces symptoms in intractable idiopathic cervical dystonia: a case study. Neurosci Lett. 2013;533:39-43.PubMedCrossRef
217.
Khosravani S, Mahnan A, Yeh IL, Aman JE, Watson PJ, Zhang Y, et al. Laryngeal vibration as a non-invasive neuromodulation therapy for spasmodic dysphonia. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):17955.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
218.
Prudente CN, Zetterberg L, Bring A, Bradnam L, Kimberley TJ. Systematic Review of Rehabilitation in Focal Dystonias: Classification and Recommendations. Mov Disord Clin Pract. 2018;5(3):237-45.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
219.
Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Kunz R, Falck-Ytter Y, Alonso-Coello P, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336(7650):924-6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
220.
Pirio Richardson S, Altenmuller E, Alter K, Alterman RL, Chen R, Frucht S, et al. Research Priorities in Limb and Task-Specific Dystonias. Front Neurol. 2017;8:170.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
221.
Priori A, Pesenti A, Cappellari A, Scarlato G, Barbieri S. Limb immobilization for the treatment of focal occupational dystonia. Neurology. 2001;57(3):405-9.PubMedCrossRef
222.
Candia V, Schafer T, Taub E, Rau H, Altenmuller E, Rockstroh B, et al. Sensory motor retuning: a behavioral treatment for focal hand dystonia of pianists and guitarists. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(10):1342-8.PubMedCrossRef
223.
Candia V, Elbert T, Altenmuller E, Rau H, Schafer T, Taub E. Constraint-induced movement therapy for focal hand dystonia in musicians. Lancet. 1999;353(9146):42.PubMedCrossRef
224.
Berque P, Gray H, Harkness C, McFadyen A. A combination of constraint-induced therapy and motor control retraining in the treatment of focal hand dystonia in musicians. Med Probl Perform Art. 2010;25(4):149-61.PubMedCrossRef
225.
Zeuner KE, Shill HA, Sohn YH, Molloy FM, Thornton BC, Dambrosia JM, et al. Motor training as treatment in focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord. 2005;20(3):335-41.PubMedCrossRef
226.
Candia V, Wienbruch C, Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Ray W. Effective behavioral treatment of focal hand dystonia in musicians alters somatosensory cortical organization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100(13):7942-6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
227.
Rosset-Llobet J, Fabregas-Molas S. Long-term treatment effects of sensory motor retuning in a pianist with focal dystonia. Med Probl Perform Art. 2011;26(2):106-7.PubMedCrossRef
228.
Sakai N. Slow-down exercise for the treatment of focal hand dystonia in pianists. Med Probl Perform Art. 2006;21(1):25-8.
229.
Hinkley LB, Webster RL, Byl NN, Nagarajan SS. Neuroimaging characteristics of patients with focal hand dystonia. J Hand Ther. 2009;22(2):125-34; quiz 35.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef
230.
Byl NN, Archer ES, McKenzie A. Focal hand dystonia: effectiveness of a home program of fitness and learning-based sensorimotor and memory training. J Hand Ther. 2009;22(2):183-97; quiz 98.PubMedCrossRef
231.
Zeuner KE, Bara-Jimenez W, Noguchi PS, Goldstein SR, Dambrosia JM, Hallett M. Sensory training for patients with focal hand dystonia. Ann Neurol. 2002;51(5):593-8.PubMedCrossRef
232.
Zeuner KE, Hallett M. Sensory training as treatment for focal hand dystonia: a 1-year follow-up. Mov Disord. 2003;18(9):1044-7.PubMedCrossRef
233.
Byl NN, McKenzie A. Treatment effectiveness for patients with a history of repetitive hand use and focal hand dystonia: a planned, prospective follow-up study. J Hand Ther. 2000;13(4):289-301.PubMedCrossRef
234.
Bleton JP, Vidailhet M, Bourdain F, Ducorps A, Schwartz D, Delmaire C, et al. Somatosensory cortical remodelling after rehabilitation and clinical benefit of in writer's cramp. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2011;82(5):574-7.PubMedCrossRef
235.
Enke AM, Poskey GA. Neuromuscular Re-Education Programs for Musicians with Focal Hand Dystonia: A Systematic Review. Med Probl Perform Art. 2018;33(2):137-45.PubMedCrossRef
236.
Berque P, Gray H, McFadyen A. A combination of constraint-induced therapy and motor control retraining in the treatment of focal hand dystonia in musicians: a long-term follow-up study. Med Probl Perform Art. 2013;28(1):33-46.PubMedCrossRef
237.
McKenzie AL, Goldman S, Barrango C, Shrime M, Wong T, Byl N. Differences in physical characteristics and response to rehabilitation for patients with hand dystonia: musicians' cramp compared to writers' cramp. J Hand Ther. 2009;22(2):172-81; quiz 82.PubMedCrossRef
238.
Yoshie M, Sakai N, Ohtsuki T, Kudo K. Slow-down exercise reverses sensorimotor reorganization in focal hand dystonia: a case study of a pianist. Int J Neurorehabilitation. 2015;2(2):2376-0281.100015.
239.
Jahanshahi M, Sartory G, Marsden CD. EMG biofeedback treatment of torticollis: a controlled outcome study. Biofeedback Self Regul. 1991;16(4):413-48.PubMedCrossRef
240.
Duddy J, McLellan D. Lack of influence of EMG biofeedback in relaxation training for spasmodic torticollis. Clinical rehabilitation. 1995;9(4):297-303.CrossRef
241.
Boyce MJ, Canning CG, Mahant N, Morris J, Latimer J, Fung VS. Active exercise for individuals with cervical dystonia: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. 2013;27(3):226-35.PubMedCrossRef
242.
Tassorelli C, Mancini F, Balloni L, Pacchetti C, Sandrini G, Nappi G, et al. Botulinum toxin and neuromotor rehabilitation: An integrated approach to idiopathic cervical dystonia. Mov Disord. 2006;21(12):2240-3.PubMedCrossRef
243.
El-Bahrawy MN, El-Tamawy MS, Shalaby NM, Abdel-Alim AM. Cervical dystonia: Abnormal head posture and its relation to hand function. Egypt J Neurol, Psychiatr Neurosurg. 2009;46:203-8.
244.
Hu W, Rundle-Gonzalez V, Kulkarni SJ, Martinez-Ramirez D, Almeida L, Okun MS, et al. A randomized study of botulinum toxin versus botulinum toxin plus physical therapy for treatment of cervical dystonia. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2019;63:195-8.PubMedCrossRef
245.
Queiroz MA, Chien HF, Sekeff-Sallem FA, Barbosa ER. Physical therapy program for cervical dystonia: a study of 20 cases. Funct Neurol. 2012;27(3):187-92.PubMed
246.
van den Dool J, Visser B, Koelman JH, Engelbert RH, Tijssen MA. Long-Term Specialized Physical Therapy in Cervical Dystonia: Outcomes of a Randomized Controlled Trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2019;100(8):1417-25.PubMedCrossRef
Metadaten
Titel
Treatment of Dystonia: Medications, Neurotoxins, Neuromodulation, and Rehabilitation
verfasst von
Ian O. Bledsoe
Aaron C. Viser
Marta San Luciano
Publikationsdatum
01.10.2020
Verlag
Springer International Publishing
Erschienen in
Neurotherapeutics / Ausgabe 4/2020
Print ISSN: 1933-7213
Elektronische ISSN: 1878-7479
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-020-00944-0

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 4/2020

Neurotherapeutics 4/2020 Zur Ausgabe

Publisher Correction

Correction to: Imaging Guidance for Therapeutic Delivery: the Dawn of Neuroenergetics

Original Article

Inhibition of the BMP Signaling Pathway Ameliorated Established Clinical Symptoms of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Review

Approach to Cognitive Impairment in Parkinson’s Disease

Original Article

Reperfusion plus Selective Intra-arterial Cooling (SI-AC) Improve Recovery in a Nonhuman Primate Model of Stroke

Review

Therapy of Parkinson’s Disease Subtypes

Current Perspectives

Treating Post-traumatic Stress Disorder with Neuromodulation Therapies: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation, and Deep Brain Stimulation

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

Demenzkranke durch Antipsychotika vielfach gefährdet

Demenz Nachrichten

Der Einsatz von Antipsychotika gegen psychische und Verhaltenssymptome in Zusammenhang mit Demenzerkrankungen erfordert eine sorgfältige Nutzen-Risiken-Abwägung. Neuen Erkenntnissen zufolge sind auf der Risikoseite weitere schwerwiegende Ereignisse zu berücksichtigen.

Nicht Creutzfeldt Jakob, sondern Abführtee-Vergiftung

29.05.2024 Hyponatriämie Nachrichten

Eine ältere Frau trinkt regelmäßig Sennesblättertee gegen ihre Verstopfung. Der scheint plötzlich gut zu wirken. Auf Durchfall und Erbrechen folgt allerdings eine Hyponatriämie. Nach deren Korrektur kommt es plötzlich zu progredienten Kognitions- und Verhaltensstörungen.

Schutz der Synapsen bei Alzheimer

29.05.2024 Morbus Alzheimer Nachrichten

Mit einem Neurotrophin-Rezeptor-Modulator lässt sich möglicherweise eine bestehende Alzheimerdemenz etwas abschwächen: Erste Phase-2-Daten deuten auf einen verbesserten Synapsenschutz.

Sozialer Aufstieg verringert Demenzgefahr

24.05.2024 Demenz Nachrichten

Ein hohes soziales Niveau ist mit die beste Versicherung gegen eine Demenz. Noch geringer ist das Demenzrisiko für Menschen, die sozial aufsteigen: Sie gewinnen fast zwei demenzfreie Lebensjahre. Umgekehrt steigt die Demenzgefahr beim sozialen Abstieg.

Update Neurologie

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen
Bildnachweise