Background
Methods
Study design
Study participants
Study site
Eligibility criteria
General population participants
Informal caregivers of cancer patients (people who were accompanying cancer patients at the time of the interview, whether or not they were relatives of the patient)
Cancer patients
Sample size calculation
Study participant selection
Ethical aspects
Data collection instruments
Questionnaire on sociodemographic and clinical characteristics and issues potentially associated with feeling of happiness
Pemberton happiness index (PHI)
Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS)
Diener and Emmons’ positive and negative experience scale (PNES)
Statistical analysis
Results
Characteristics | Total (n = 2580) | General Population (n = 2112) | Cancer Patients (n = 342) | Family caregivers (n = 126) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | ||
Gender | < 0.001 | ||||
Male | 620 (24.0) | 479 (22.3) | 122 (35.7) | 28 (22.2) | |
Female | 1960 (76.0) | 1672 (77.7) | 220 (64.3) | 98 (77.8) | |
Race (ethnicity) | < 0.001 | ||||
White | 1729 (67.0) | 1483 (70.2) | 207 (60.5) | 39 (31.0) | |
Black | 131 (5.1) | 83 (3.9) | 30 (8.8) | 18 (14.3) | |
Latino | 633 (24.5) | 476 (22.5) | 90 (26.3) | 67 (53.2) | |
Asian | 64 (2.5) | 55 (2.6) | 07 (2.0) | 02 (1.6) | |
Missing | 23 (0.9) | 15 (0.7) | 08 (2.3) | 00 (0.0) | |
Age (years) | < 0.001 | ||||
18–29 | 983 (38.1) | 938 (44.4) | 17 (5.0) | 28 (22.2) | |
30–39 | 765 (29.7) | 699 (33.1) | 24 (7.0) | 42 (33.3) | |
40–49 | 364 (14.1) | 277 (13.1) | 68 (19.9) | 19 (15.1) | |
50–59 | 292 (11.3) | 141 (6.7) | 124 (36.3) | 27 (21.4) | |
60–69 | 133 (5.2) | 47 (2.2) | 78 (22.8) | 08 (6.3) | |
≥ 70 | 42 (1.6) | 10 (0.5) | 30 (8.8) | 02 (1.6) | |
Missing | 01 (0.0) | 00 (00) | 01 (0.3) | 00 (0.0) | |
Marital status | < 0.001 | ||||
Married | 1266 (49.1) | 1002 (47.4) | 189 (55.3) | 75 (59.5) | |
Windowed | 64 (2.5) | 24 (1.1) | 35 (10.2) | 05 (4.0) | |
Separated or divorced | 179 (6.9) | 123 (5.8) | 48 (14.0) | 08 (6.3) | |
Single | 1053 (40.8) | 951 (45.0) | 64 (18.7) | 38 (30.2) | |
Other / Do not Know | 18 (1.4) | 12 (0.6) | 06 (1.8) | 00 (0.0) | |
Place of residence (Brazilian region) | < 0.001 | ||||
North | 244 (9.5) | 168 (8.0) | 19 (5.6) | 57 (45.2) | |
Northeast | 264 (10.2) | 240 (11.4) | 06 (1.8) | 18 (14.3) | |
Southeast | 1228 (47.6) | 964 (45.6) | 264 (77.2) | 00 (0.0) | |
Midwest | 273 (10.6) | 179 (8.5) | 46 (13.5) | 48 (38.1) | |
South | 571 (22.1) | 561 (26.6) | 07 (2.0) | 03 (2.4) | |
Location where live | < 0.001 | ||||
Urban Area | 2473 (95.9) | 2060 (97.5) | 312 (91.2) | 101 (80.2) | |
Rural Area | 107 (4.1) | 52 (2.5) | 30 (8.8) | 25 (19.8) | |
Educational level | < 0.001 | ||||
< 8 years of education | 259 (10.0) | 26 (1.2) | 186 (54.4) | 47 (37.3) | |
8 to 11 years of education | 349 (13.5) | 218 (10.3) | 77 (22.5) | 54 (42.9) | |
> 11 years of education | 1970 (76.4) | 1866 (88.4) | 79 (23.1) | 25 (19.8) | |
Missing | 02 (0.1) | 02 (0.1) | 00 (0.0) | 00 (0.0) | |
Professional activity currently | < 0.001 | ||||
Yes | 2427 (94.1) | 2030 (96.1) | 282 (82.5) | 115 (91.3) | |
No | 153 (5.9) | 82 (3.9) | 60 (17.5) | 11 (8.7) | |
Family income* | < 0.001 | ||||
≤ 3.9 minimum wages | 703 (27.2) | 413 (19.6) | 185 (54.1) | 105 (83.3) | |
≥ 4 minimum wages | 1877 (72.8) | 1699 (80.4) | 157 (45.9) | 21 (16.7) | |
Religions beliefs | < 0.001 | ||||
Catholic | 1310 (50.8) | 1058 (50.1) | 197 (57.6) | 55 (43.7) | |
Evangelic | 436 (16.9) | 333 (15.8) | 94 (27.5) | 09 (7.1) | |
Spiritist | 413 (16.0) | 382 (18.1) | 30 (8.8) | 01 (0.8) | |
Other | 28 (1.1) | 24 (1.1) | 02 (0.6) | 02 (1.6) | |
No formal religion | 387 (15.0) | 309 (14.6) | 19 (5.6) | 59 (46.8) | |
Atheist or agnostic | 06 (0.2) | 06 (0.3) | 00 (0.0) | 00 (0.0) |
PHI-r
Variables | β (SE) | IC95% | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Constant | 4.4 (0.2) | 4.1–4.8 | < 0.001 |
Participants | |||
General population | – | – | – |
Caregivers of cancer patients | 0.8 (0.2) | 0.4–1.1 | < 0.001 |
Cancer patients | 0.5 (0.1) | 0.2–0.8 | < 0.001 |
Feeling of happiness with the professional activity | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 0.6 (0.1) | 0.5–0.8 | < 0.001 |
Self-assessment of health | |||
Bad3 | – | – | – |
Good4 | 0.6 (0.1) | 0.4–0.8 | < 0.001 |
Diagnosis of depression | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −0.7 (0.1) | −0.9 – (−0.4) | < 0.001 |
Diagnosis of anxiety | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −0.3 (0.1) | −0.5 – (− 0.1) | < 0.001 |
Other psychological/psychiatric problem | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −0.7 (0.2) | −1.2 – (− 0.3) | 0.002 |
Current professional activity | |||
Yes | – | – | – |
No | −0.3 (0.1) | −0.6 – (0.0) | 0.028 |
Satisfaction with financial issues | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 0.5 (0.1) | 0.4–0.6 | < 0.001 |
Frequency of family gatherings | |||
Little5 | – | – | – |
Much6 | 0.4 (0.1) | 0.2–0.5 | < 0.001 |
Influence of religious or spiritual life on happiness | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 0.3 (0.1) | 0.2–0.5 | < 0.001 |
Self described as | |||
Pessimistic | – | – | – |
Neither optimistic nor pessimistic | 0.7 (0.1) | 0.4–0.9 | < 0.001 |
Optimistic | 1.4 (0.1) | 1.1–1.6 | < 0.001 |
Contact with nature | |||
Little5 | – | – | – |
Much6 | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.0–0.3 | 0.044 |
Leisure time | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 0.3 (0.1) | 0.2–0.5 | < 0.001 |
Physical activity | |||
Don’t practice physical activity | – | – | – |
Once to twice per week | 0.0 (0.1) | −0.1 – 0.2 | 0.825 |
3 or more times per week | 0.3 (0.1) | 0.1–0.4 | < 0.001 |
SWLS
Variables | β (SE) | IC95% | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Constant | 15.1(0.7) | 13.8–16.4 | < 0.001 |
Participants | |||
General population | – | – | – |
Caregivers of cancer patients | 2.9 (0.6) | 1.7. – 4.2 | < 0.001 |
Cancer patients | 0.9 (0.5) | 0.0–1.9 | 0.051 |
Marital status | |||
Married | – | – | – |
Windowed | −1.1 (0.7) | −2.6 – 0.3 | 0.116 |
Separated or divorced | −2.0 (0.4) | − 2.9 (− 1.1) | < 0.001 |
Single | −0.2 (0.3) | −0.7 – 0.3 | 0.536 |
Feeling of happiness with the professional activity | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 2.4 (0.2) | 1.9–2.9 | < 0.001 |
Self-assessment of health | |||
Bad3 | – | – | – |
Good4 | 2.3 (0.3) | 1.7–2.9 | < 0.001 |
Diagnosis of depression | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −2.5 (0.4) | −3.4 – (−1.7) | < 0.001 |
Diagnosis of anxiety | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −0.9 (0.3) | −1.5 – (−0.3) | 0.002 |
Place of residence (Brazilian region) | |||
Southeast | – | – | – |
Midwest | −0.9 (0.3) | −1.6 - (− 0.2) | 0.016 |
Northeast | −0.7 (0.4) | −1.4 – 0.1 | 0.080 |
North | 0.4 (0.4) | −0.4 – 1.2 | 0.303 |
South | 0.1 (0.3) | −0.5 – 0.6 | 0.898 |
Satisfaction with financial issues | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 3.4 (0.2) | 2.9–3.9 | < 0.001 |
Frequency of family gatherings | |||
Little5 | – | – | – |
Much6 | 1.3 (0.2) | 0.9–1.8 | < 0.001 |
Influence of religious or spiritual life on happiness | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 1.1 (0.2) | 0.6–1.6 | < 0.001 |
Self described as | |||
Pessimistic | – | – | – |
Neither optimistic nor pessimistic | 1.5 (0.5) | 0.6–2.5 | 0.002 |
Optimistic | 3.4 (0.5) | 2.5–4.4 | < 0.001 |
Leisure time | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 1.4 (0.2) | 0.9–1.9 | < 0.001 |
Physical activity | |||
Don’t practice physical activity | – | – | – |
Once to twice per week | 0.3 (0.3) | −0.2 – 0.9 | 0.230 |
3 or more times per week | 0.8 (0.3) | 0.2–1.3 | 0.004 |
PNES
Variables | β (SE) | IC95% | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Constant | 17.9(0.5) | 16.9–18.9 | < 0.001 |
Participants | |||
General population | – | – | – |
Caregivers of cancer patients | −2.0 (0.5) | − 2.9 – (− 1.1) | < 0.001 |
Cancer patients | −3.8 (0.4) | −4.5 – (−3.0) | < 0.001 |
Current professional activity | |||
Yes | – | – | – |
No | −1.0 (0.4) | − 1.7 – (− 0.3) | 0.007 |
Voluntary activity | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | 0.3 (0.2) | 0.0–0.7 | 0.092 |
Voluntary financial donation | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | 0.7 (0.2) | 0.3–1.1 | < 0.001 |
Influence of religious or spiritual life on happiness | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 1.5 (0.2) | 1.2–1.9 | < 0.001 |
Self-assessment of health | |||
Bad3 | – | – | – |
Good4 | 1.2 (0.2) | 0.7–1.6 | 0.001 |
Diagnosis of depression | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −2.1 (0.3) | −2.8 – (−1.5) | < 0.001 |
Diagnosis of anxiety | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −0.9 (0.2) | −1.4 – (−0.4) | < 0.001 |
Other psychological/psychiatric problem | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | −1.4 (0.6) | −2.6 – (−0.2) | 0.027 |
Frequency of family gatherings | |||
Little5 | – | – | – |
Much6 | 0.7 (0.2) | 0.3–1.0 | < 0.001 |
Influence of religious or spiritual life on happiness | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 0.5 (0.2) | 0.1–0.9 | 0.006 |
Satisfaction with financial issues | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 1.9 (0.2) | 1.5–2.2 | < 0.001 |
Self described as | |||
Pessimistic | – | – | – |
Neither optimistic nor pessimistic | 2.1 (0.4) | 1.3–2.9 | < 0.001 |
Optimistic | 5.2 (0.4) | 4.5–6.0 | < 0.001 |
Leisure time | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | 1.7 (0.2) | 1.3–2.1 | < 0.001 |
Physical activity | |||
Don’t practice physical activity | – | – | – |
Once to twice per week | 0.2 (0.2) | −0.3 – 0.6 | 0.487 |
3 or more times per week | 0.5 (0.2) | 0.1–0.9 | 0.010 |
Variables | β (SE) | IC95% | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Constant | 17.7(0.5) | 16.7–18.8 | < 0.001 |
Participants | |||
General population | – | – | – |
Caregivers of cancer patients | 3.6 (0.5) | 2.7–4.5 | < 0.001 |
Cancer patients | 2.3 (0.4) | 1.6–3.0 | < 0.001 |
Feeling of happiness with the professional activity | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | − 1.3 (0.2) | −1.6 – (− 0.9) | < 0.001 |
Self-assessment of health | |||
Bad3 | – | – | – |
Good4 | −0.7 (0.2) | −1.1 – (− 0.2) | 0.005 |
Sickness in a close person (a loved one) | |||
Yes | – | – | – |
No | −0.5 (0.2) | −0.8 – (− 0.1) | 0.005 |
Diagnosis of depression | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | 2.2 (0.3) | 1.5–2.8 | < 0.001 |
Diagnosis of anxiety | |||
No | – | – | – |
Yes | 1.5 (0.2) | 1.0–1.9 | < 0.001 |
Satisfaction with financial issues | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | −0.9 (0.2) | −1.3 – (− 0.5) | < 0.001 |
Self described as | |||
Pessimistic | – | – | – |
Neither optimistic nor pessimistic | −1.7 (0.4) | −2.5 – (−0.9) | < 0.001 |
Optimistic | −3.5 (0.4) | −4.2 – (− 2.7) | < 0.001 |
Leisure time | |||
Little1 | – | – | – |
Much2 | −0.9 (0.2) | −1.3 – (− 0.5) | < 0.001 |
Physical activity | |||
Don’t practice physical activity | – | – | – |
Once to twice per week | 0.0 (0.2) | −0.4 – 0.5 | 0.901 |
3 or more times per week | −0.6 (0.2) | −0.9 – (− 0.1) | 0.006 |