Background
Immune pathophysiology of sepsis
Early stage hypercytokinemia
Effects of complement activation and neutrophil-mediated immunity
Decreased levels of immunoglobulins
References | Study objective | Study design/enrolled patients | Immunoglobulin findings | Outcomes |
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Taccone et al. [14] | Evaluate the time course of gamma-globulin concentrations in patients with septic shock, to define the frequency of low immunoglobulin concentrations, and to investigate the relationship of immunoglobulin concentrations to disease severity and outcome | Prospective observational study 21 patients (aged ≥ 18 years old) with community-acquired septic shock | 76% of patients (16/21) had hypo-gammaglobulinemia (single or combined immunoglobulin deficiency) at admission: 7 patients had isolated low IgG concentrations, 4 patients had isolated low IgM concentrations, and 3 patients had low IgG and IgM concentrations Two patients had low concentrations of IgG, IgM, and IgA and died with refractory shock within 2 days Patients with low IgG concentration on Day 1 had persistent low levels throughout the ICU stay. Almost all patients with normal IgG levels maintained normal concentrations throughout their stay (1 patient had a transient decrease in IgG on Day 3) | Patients with low IgG concentrations were indistinguishable at baseline from patients with normal IgG concentrations but had fewer vasopressor-free days (P = 0.02) and more frequently developed acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome (P = 0.02) There was no significant difference in outcomes in patients with normal or low IgM levels All deaths occurred in patients with low IgG concentrations (P = 0.01) |
Myrianthefs et al. [15] | Investigate the time course of IgG and IgM concentrations in patients who developed septic shock during their ICU stay | Observational cohort study 38 patients who developed septic shock during their ICU stay | 45% of patients (17/38) had hypo-gammaglobulinemia (single or combined immunoglobulin deficiency) on admission: 7 patients had isolated low IgG levels, 5 patients had isolated low IgM concentrations, and 5 patients had low IgG and IgM levels Low levels of IgG were resolved within 10 days in the 5 patients who survived in the group with low IgG IgM concentrations improved over time in patients with and without low IgG levels | There were no significant differences regarding length of ICU or hospital stay, oxygenation index (PaO2/FIO2), duration of vasopressor use, or duration of mechanical ventilation in those with low or normal IgG levels No comparative analyses were provided for patients with low or normal IgM levels |
Andaluz-Ojeda et al. [16] | Evaluate the quantitative changes in the status of immunocompetence in severe sepsis over time and its potential influence on clinical outcome | Prospective observational cohort study 50 patients (aged ≥ 18 years old) with severe sepsis or septic shock | Survivors exhibited a progressive increase in IgG, IgA, and IgM levels from Day 1 to Day 10 | Compared to survivors, septic patients who did not survive had significantly lower levels of IgG in the first 24 h following admission to the ICU There was no significant difference in IgA or IgM levels between survivors and non-survivors |
Venet et al. [17] | Measure the endogenous levels of circulating IgG, IgA, and IgM in a cohort of septic shock patients | Prospective observational cohort study 62 consecutive patients (aged ≥ 18 years old) with septic shock | At Days 1–2, 61%, 40%, and 9% of patients had IgG, IgM, and IgA concentrations below the lowest limit of age-matched reference values, respectively Circulating IgG and IgM concentrations increased over time, by Days 5–7, 61% of patients had IgG and IgM levels within the range of normal values | Changes in immunoglobulin levels did not appear to be associated with increased mortality, morbidity, or severity after septic shock Reduced immunoglobulin level was correlated with reduced protein concentrations at Days 1–4 suggesting an apparent hypogammaglobulinemia is present during this time period in septic shock patients |
Tamayo et al. [18] | Investigate the relationship between endogenously produced immunoglobulins and the clinical outcome in septic shock | Retrospective study 42 patients with septic shock and 36 patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome | Both patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome and septic shock showed subnormal levels of total IgG, IgG2, and IgM | Patients with septic shock who died showed the lowest levels of total IgG and IgG1 Univariate Cox regression analysis showed that levels of IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgM, IgA, and total IgG were inversely associated to the probability of death at 28 days Multivariate analysis showed that IgG1, total IgG, IgM, and IgA behaved as independent protective factors against mortality (HR, P): 0.23, 0.026; 0.16, 0.028; 0.11, 0.042; 0.05, 0.010, respectively |
Giamarellos-Bourboulis et al. [19] | Investigate the kinetics of IgM during the different stages of sepsis | Prospective observational multicenter cohort study 332 critically ill patients were enrolled | Serum IgM was decreased in septic shock compared to patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome and patients with severe sepsis Paired comparisons at distinct time points of the sepsis course showed that IgM was decreased only when patients deteriorated from severe sepsis to septic shock | Serial measurements in patients who progressed from severe sepsis to septic shock, beginning from the early start of vasopressors, showed that the distribution of IgM over time was significantly greater for survivors than for non-survivors |
Průcha et al. [20] | Assess the frequency of hypogammaglobulinemia in patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome, severe sepsis, and septic shock | Retrospective study 708 patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome, severe sepsis, and septic shock | IgG, IgA, and IgM hypogammaglobulinemia was demonstrated in 25%, 3%, and 12% of patients with severe sepsis, and 24%, 2%, and 13% of septic shock patients, respectively | Mortality in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock and IgG hypogammaglobulinemia was significantly higher than in those with normal IgG levels Mortality in patients with septic shock and IgM hypogammaglobulinemia was significantly higher than in those with normal IgM levels. In patients with severe sepsis, no significant difference in mortality was observed |
Bermejo-Martín et al. [21] | Evaluate the association between immunoglobulin levels in plasma and survival in patients with severe sepsis | Prospective observational multicenter cohort study 172 patients (aged > 18 years old) admitted to the ICU with severe sepsis/septic shock | At time of diagnosis, 27.9%, 39.2%, and 19.2% of patients had immunoglobulin concentrations below the normal reference values for IgG1, IgM, and IgA, respectively | Kaplan–Meier analysis showed that levels below normal reference values for IgG1, IgM, and IgA were associated with shorter survival times Multivariate regression analysis showed that low levels of IgG1 were a risk factor for mortality (OR: 2.50, 95% CI 1.04–6.03; P = 0.042) The combined presence of IgG1, IgM, and IgA levels below the normal threshold had a synergistic impact on mortality risk (OR: 5.27, 95% CI 1.41–19.69; P = 0.013). A similar effect was observed for combined low levels of IgG1 and IgA:,and IgG1 and IgM |
Shankar-Hari et al. [22] | Evaluate the additional mortality risk associated with subnormal IgG concentrations in adults with sepsis managed in an ICU setting | Systematic review of 8 studies 438 adult patients with sepsis | IgG concentrations increased over time in most studies | Subnormal IgG levels on the day of sepsis diagnosis did not increase the risk of death in adult patients with severe sepsis and/or septic shock by both fixed effect and random effect meta-analysis (M-H pooled OR: 1.32 [95% CI 0.93–1.87] and D + L pooled OR: 1.48 [95% CI 0.78–2.81], respectively) |
Tian et al. [23] | Study the relationship between circulating B cells and plasma IgM levels and sepsis survival rate | Systematic review and meta-analysis of 11 studies 829 patients (aged > 18 years old) with sepsis and/or septic shock | Plasma IgM level was significantly decreased in septic patients (SMD = − 2.35, 95% CI − 2.94, − 1.76; P < 0.00001, I2 = 0%) compared with healthy controls Plasma IgM level was significantly lower in sepsis survivors versus sepsis non-survivors (SMD = − 0.31, 95% CI − 0.53, − 0.09; P = 0.005, I2 = 50%) | The reduction of circulating B cells and IgM plasma levels is negatively correlated with sepsis survival |
Late immunosuppressive events
Why focus on immunoglobulins?
References | Study design/enrolled patients | Cumulative dose | Outcome |
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Just et al. [54] | Prospective, randomised, controlled clinical trial 104 intensive care patients (50 patients in treatment group, 54 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: initially 5 g, then 5 g every 12 h for 36 h (total 20 g) combined with antibiotics | There was a significant decrease in recovery time, ventilation time, and time spent in the ICU in the treatment group compared to the control group |
Vogel [55] | Prospective, randomized, controlled study 50 patients with sepsis (25 patients in treatment group, 25 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 10 g/day for 3 days | There was a ~ 20% lower mortality rate in patients receiving Pentaglobin compared with the control group |
Wesoly et al. [56] | Prospective, randomized, controlled study 35 patients with septic postoperative complications (18 patients in treatment group, 17 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg/day | Endotoxin titers decreased, along with a reduction in mortality and shortening of hospitalization and mechanical ventilation time, in patients receiving Pentaglobin compared with control |
Schedel et al. [57] | Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial 55 patients with gram-negative septic shock (27 patients in treatment group, 28 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: for 3 days according to the following schedule: Day 1: 30 g over > 8 h; Days 2 and 3: 15 g over > 8 h | Patients treated with Pentaglobin had a significantly lower rate of sepsis-related mortality compared to the control group |
Behre et al. [58] | Prospective pilot study and randomized, controlled trial Pilot study: 21 patients with acute leukemia or non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and sepsis syndrome Randomized controlled trial: 52 patients with hematological malignancies and sepsis syndrome (30 patients in treatment group, 22 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: Initial bolus of 10 g followed by 5 g every 6 h for 3 days | Patients treated with Pentaglobin had a significantly lower rate of all-cause 28-day mortality compared with those who received 5% human albumin |
Rodríguez et al. [59] | Multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial 37 patients with abdominal sepsis (20 patients in treatment group, 17 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 350 mg/kg/day for 5 days | There was no significant difference in organ dysfunction, organ failure, or mortality between the patients receiving Pentaglobin and the control group. The mortality rate was lower in the Pentaglobin versus control group without reaching statistical significance |
Reith and Mittelkötter [60] | Prospective, controlled trial 67 patients with severe sepsis or septic shock (35 patients in treatment group, 32 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 15-20 g/day for 3 days | Patients treated with Pentaglobin had a significantly lower mortality rate compared with patients in the control group |
Tugrul et al. [61] | Prospective, randomized, controlled study 42 patients with severe sepsis (21 patients in treatment group, 21 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg/day over 6 h for 3 days | There was no significant difference in organ morbidity, septic shock incidence, or mortality between the treatment and control groups |
Karatzas et al. [62] | Prospective, randomized, controlled study 68 patients with severe sepsis (34 patients in treatment group, 34 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg/day over 6 h for 3 days | Patients treated with Pentaglobin had a significantly lower rate of 28-day mortality compared to the control group |
Reith et al. [63] | Prospective, randomized controlled study 64 patients with abdominal infection (31 patients in treatment group, 33 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 10 g within 6 h of surgery followed by 55 g over the next 66 h by continuous perfusion (total: 1300 mL over 3 days) | There was no significant difference in incidence of fever, percentage of days with fever, mean body temperature, or duration of stay in hospital between those receiving Pentaglobin or albumin |
Rodríguez et al. [64] | Prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled study 56 patients with severe sepsis and septic shock of intra-abdominal origin (29 patients in treatment group, 27 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 350 mg/kg/day for 5 days | There was a ~ 20% reduction in mortality rate in patients receiving Pentaglobin compared with the control group; however, there was no significant difference in organ dysfunction, organ failure, or mortality between the 2 groups |
Buda et al. [65] | Retrospective case-controlled study 66 patients diagnosed with sepsis after cardiac surgery (22 patients in treatment group, 44 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg daily for 3 days | Pentaglobin did not significantly reduce mortality in the overall study population. However, in the subgroup of patients with severe sepsis, it improved the survival rate significantly |
Hentrich et al. [66] | Multicenter, prospective, randomized, controlled study 206 neutropenic patients with sepsis syndrome or septic shock after receiving chemotherapy for severe hematologic disorders (103 patients in treatment group, 103 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 65 g over 3 days according to the following schedule: 10 g initially (0.5 mL/min) followed by 11 infusions of 5 g, repeated every 6 h | There was no significant difference in all-cause 28- or 60-day mortality, or sepsis-related 28-day mortality between patients receiving Pentaglobin or human albumin |
Yavuz et al. [67] | Retrospective study 118 patients with sepsis-induced multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (56 patients in treatment group, 62 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg/day for 3 days | Patients who received IgM-enriched immunoglobulins had significantly lower overall mortality and 28-day case fatality rates and a shorter length of ICU stay compared with the control group |
Toth et al. [68] | Prospective, randomized, controlled pilot study 33 patients with early septic shock accompanied by severe respiratory failure (16 patients in treatment group, 17 patients in placebo group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg over 8 h for 3 days | There was no significant difference in organ dysfunction between patients who received Pentaglobin and placebo |
Brunner et al. [69] | Prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial 38 critically ill patients with multiple organ failure, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, and early clinical signs of critical illness polyneuropathy and/or myopathy (19 patients in treatment group, 19 patients in placebo group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg body weight/day as a continuous intravenous infusion at a rate of 2 g/h for 3 days | Early treatment with Pentaglobin did not significantly improve critical illness polyneuropathy and/or myopathy or influence length of ICU stay or mortality in critically ill patients |
Cavazzuti et al. [70] | Retrospective cohort study 168 patients with septic shock (92 patients in treatment group, 76 patients in control group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg/day (20 mg/kg/h) for 3 days | Early adjunctive treatment with IgM-enriched immunoglobulins resulted in an approximately 20% reduction in the absolute risk of 30-day mortality in patients with septic shock |
Giamarellos-Bourboulis et al. [71] | Retrospective analysis 200 patients with confirmed severe sepsis or septic shock caused by nosocomial multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacteria infection (100 patients in treatment group, 100 in control group) | Pentaglobin: Mean daily dose: 30 g/day administered as a 5–6-hour continuous infusion for 5 days | Patients treated with Pentaglobin had a significantly lower rate of all-cause 28-day mortality compared with the control group |
Berlot et al. [72] | Retrospective single-center study 355 patients with septic shock | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg/day over 10 h for 3 days (total dose 750 mg/kg) | Earlier administration of Pentaglobin was associated with a decreased risk of in-ICU mortality, both in patients with septic shock caused by any pathogens and in patients with MDR-related septic shock |
Willuweit et al. [73] | Retrospective study 21 patients with sepsis-related vasoplegia post-liver transplant | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg over 12 h for 3 days | Patients who received IgM-enriched immunoglobulins had significantly decreased levels of inflammatory markers and a reduction in vasopressors required to maintain hemodynamic stability 30-day mortality was 14.3%, significantly less than calculated mortality (greater than 90%) based on Sepsis-Related Organ Failure Assessment scores |
Domizi et al. [74] | Single-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 2 trial 20 patients diagnosed with sepsis or septic shock for less than 24 h (10 patients in the treatment group, 10 patients in the control group) | Pentaglobin: 250 mg/kg (5 mL/kg)/day for 3 days | A 72-hour infusion of Pentaglobin in patients with sepsis or septic shock was associated with an increase in sublingual microvascular perfusion |
Which patients may benefit most from IgM- and IgA-enriched immunoglobulin therapy?
Defining patient phenotypes
Patients with hyperinflammation
Clinical phenotype
Scientific evidence
Clinical experience
Timing of therapy
Scientific evidence
Clinical experience
Appropriate dosage
Current recommendation
Clinical experience
Which patients are not eligible for treatment?
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Laboratory evidence of hyperinflammation e.g. high values of PCT, IL-6, CRP [105]
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As early as possible, particularly in those with low IgM levels and high inflammatory load, and within 24 hours [72]
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Total dose of ≥0.9 g/kg
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Rate of 0.6 mL (30 mg)/kg/hour for the first 6 hours followed by a continuous maintenance rate of 0.2 mL (10 mg)/kg/hour for 72 hours (Expert Opinion)
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Determine IgM levels if possible; if no increase is observed prolong treatment for at least 2 additional days (Expert Opinion)
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Standing DNR order or limitation of therapy, incurable metastatic malignant disease, unstable hematological malignancies
Patients with immunosuppression
Clinical phenotype
Scientific evidence
Clinical experience
Timing of therapy
Clinical experience
Appropriate dosage
Current recommendation
Clinical experience
Which patients are not eligible for treatment?
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Increased susceptibility to secondary infections in the blood and lungs [96]
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Persistence of septic shock with ≥2 organ dysfunctions after initial resuscitation treatment (Expert Opinion)
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Clinical examples: nosocomial infections, secondary fungal infections (e.g. Aspergillosis), viral reactivation, insufficient clearance of primary infective focus, multi-morbid elderly patient (diabetes mellitus, liver disease, renal insufficiency, malnutrition), patients with viral (co-)reactivation [110]
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Exact recommendation is difficult, but suggest that patients with severe sepsis or septic shock require rapid infusions to counteract the potential downstream effects (Expert Opinion)
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Total dose at least: 0.72 g/kg
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Continuous maintenance rate of 0.2 mL (10 mg)/kg/hour for 72 hours; IgM levels should be monitored if possible, and if no increase is observed, treatment should be prolonged for at least 2 additional days (Expert Opinion)
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Standing DNR order or limitation of therapy, incurable metastatic malignant disease, unstable hematological malignancies