Introduction
Methods
Literature search
Study eligibility and selection criteria
Results
Literature analysis
Clinical burden: mortality
IFD-related mortality
Overall mortality
Diagnosis of IFD
Antigen-based assays
PCR-based testing
HRCT
Early management approaches
Prophylaxis
Empirical therapy
Pre-emptive therapy
Pre-emptive group criteria | ||||||
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Reference | Country | Clinical | HRCT | GM/M | Microbiological | PCR |
Non-comparative studies | ||||||
Maertens et al., 2005 [17] | Belgium | X | X | X | ||
Girmenia et al., 2010 [51] | Italy | X | X | X | ||
Posteraro et al., 2010 [56] | Italy | X | ||||
Aguilar-Guisado et al., 2010 [74] | Spain | X | X | X | ||
Barnes et al., 2009 [79] | UK | X | X | X | X | X |
Dignan et al., 2009 [82] | UK | X | ||||
Randomised, comparative studies | ||||||
Cordonnier et al., 2009 [25] | France | X | X | X | ||
Hebart et al., 2009 [39] | Germany | X |
Empirical versus pre-emptive strategies
Country | Belgium (Maertens et al. 2005) [17] | Italy (Girmenia et al. 2010) [51] | Spain (Aguilar-Guisado et al. 2010) [74] | UK (Dignan et al. 2009) [82] | UK (Barnes et al. 2009) [79] | ||||
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Terminology | Pre-emptive | Clinically driven diagnostic approach | Empirical therapy applied to select pts | Early treatment strategy | Enhance diagnosis with targeted diagnostic testing | ||||
Study type | Prospective, feasibility | Prospective, feasibility | Prospective | Retrospective chart review | Prospective care pathway | ||||
Pt population | >16 years old and had received chemotherapy for AL or MDS with expected ANC <0.5 × 109 cells/l for at least 10 days or underwent myeloablative allogeneic HSCT | >18 years old with haematological malignancy who underwent chemotherapy or autologous HSCT and developed neutropaenia for at least 7 days | ≥16 years old with haematological or solid cancer with persistent febrile neutropaenia (refractory to 5 days of antibiotic treatment and no aetiological diagnosis) post-chemotherapy or after myeloablative HSCT | Pts receiving allogeneic HSCT between 2006 and 2007 | Haematology pts admitted at high risk of IFD and entered into the neutropaenic fever management care pathway High risk = SCT, AL, refractory disease with aggressive chemotherapy | ||||
Antifungal prophylaxis | 100 % fluconazole | None except for secondary prophylaxis with voriconazole | Allogeneic HSCT only—13.5 % Fluconazole | 100 % itraconazole unless earlier history of suspected fungal infection, then voriconazole | 100 % Itraconazole (SCT/AML) Fluconazole (ALL/lymphoma) Itraconazole (refractory) | ||||
IFI diagnostic trigger | Triggered if neutropaenic fever after 5 days of antibiotics or relapsing fever after 48 h of defervescence, clinical signs or symptoms of IFI, appearance of new pulmonary infiltrate while on antibiotics or steroids, isolation of moulds or hyphae on respiratory specimens or two consecutive GM assays ≥0.5 | BDWU prior to start of antibiotics If fever after 4 days of antibiotics, relapsing fever after 48 h or febrile pts with evidence of IFI IDWU | Persistent febrile neutropaenia: CXR, blood cultures, CT if abnormal CXR or respiratory symptoms, bronchoscopy in pts with pulmonary infiltrates, abdominal ultrasound if abdominal pain | Neutropaenic and antibiotic-resistant fever at 72 h | Neutropaenic fever included initial workup with blood cultures, urine, and fungal PCR and antigen Antibiotics started and no source identified, blood cultures repeated daily | ||||
Diagnostic workup | HRCT with or without sinus CT and bronchoscopy with BAL if no severe hypoxia | BDWU—blood cultures, microbiological, radiological exams IDWU—blood cultures, GM × 3 days, chest CT, microbiological, clinical exams | If severe sepsis/shock or foci of infection not identified, then further workup with CT, abdominal ultrasound and repeat blood cultures | HRCT within 24 h of ongoing fever | No response at 48 h: fungal PCR and antigen twice weekly, consider HRCT scan, viral cultures, CRP | ||||
Treatment initiation | Treatment initiated in pts with two consecutive GM assays ≥0.5 or CT findings suggestive of IFI with supportive positive microscopy or culture positive for moulds | Treatment if positive workup or empiric treatment if diagnostic workup negative and pt with persistent neutropaenic fever and worsening clinical conditions | Treatment if severe sepsis/septic shock or foci of infection in lung, CNS, sinus, abdomen or skin Treatment in high-risk pts at the discretion of the provider if negative workup | Treatment if neutropaenic fever and positive HRCT, if HRCT could not be performed within 24 h of ongoing fever or at the discretion of the physician if pt developed respiratory failure with high dependency or ICU, regardless of CT | Treatment given if clinical, microbiological or radiological evidence of IFI Clinical evidence included new cough with pleuritic chest pain, haemoptysis or nodular skin rash or radiological evidence | ||||
Treatment regimen | L-AMB | Not specified per protocol—voriconazole, L-AMB, C-AMB, caspofungin and fluconazole reported | L-AMB, C-AMB or voriconazole | Caspofungin | Caspofungin, L-AMB or voriconazole | ||||
Outcomes | |||||||||
Number of pts evaluated | • 88 pts • 136 treatment episodes • 117 episodes of neutropaenic fever | • 146 pts • 220 neutropaenic episodes • 159 episodes with fever | • 66 pts with persistent febrile neutropaenia | • 99 pts • 89 pts with neutropaenic fever • 53 pts with neutropaenic fever at 72 h | • 125 pts with neutropaenic fever | ||||
Group | Pre-emptive EIA+ | No treatment | EAT | No treatment | Pre-emptive | No treatment | |||
Number of pts per group | 17 (19 episodes) | 71 (117 episodes) | 48 of 220 episodes received treatment | 26 | 40 | 17 | 36 | Not reported | |
Neutropaenia duration <500 cells/μl | Median 19 (4–86) | Median in febrile pts 17 (7–75) | Median 17 (8–37) | Median 12 (6–40) | 17 (12–60) Not reported if mean or median | Not reported | |||
Underlying disease | • AML: 42 % • ALL: 19.3 % • MDS: 3.4 % • Relapse AL/MDS: 26.1 % • Other: 9 % | • AML: 45.9 % • ALL: 10.3 % • NHL: 24.7 % • HL: 4.8 % • MM: 13 % • Other: 1.4 % | Neoplasm • Lymphoma: 11.5 % • AL: 73 % • MDS: 7.7 % • SCT: 31 % • Auto: 11.5 % • Allo: 19 % | Neoplasm • Lymphoma: 37.5 %* • AL: 37.5 %** • MDS: 10 % • SCT: 42.5 % • Auto: 32.5 %*** • Allo: 10 % | • AML: 33 % • ALL: 14 % • MDS: 6 % • MM: 7 % • CLL: 11 % • HD: 7 % • CML: 7 % • NHL: 5 % • Other: 9 % | • HSCT: 44 % • AML: 31 % • ALL: 0.8 % • CLL: 3.2 % • CML: 0.8 % • NHL: 18 % • HD: 0.8 % • AA: 1.6 % | |||
Indication for treatment | • Positive GM: 16 episodes • Persistent fever: 3 episodes | None | • Treatment all diagnostic-driven, except in one pt who received treatment for persistent febrile neutropaenia and worsening clinical symptoms | • Septic shock: 34.6 % • Fever with defined focus: 30.7 % • Clinical decision: 34.6 % | None | • Positive CT: 15 pts • Empirical until CT performed and was negative: 2 pts | None | ||
Reported organisms | BAL:
Aspergillus spp. 31.6 % (6 pts) NFP 57.9 % (11 pts) Not done 10.59 % (2 pts) | 2 cases breakthrough C. glabrata
1 case disseminated zygomycosis | Possible IFD—16 cases Proven/probable IA—27 cases Proven/probable IZ—3 cases Candidaemia—3 cases | Proven/probable IFD (3 pts):
Aspergillus spp.—67 %
Scedosporium prolificans—33 % | None |
A. fumigates: 1 pt | None |
Aspergillosis
PCR + GM-EIA positive—25 pts PCR positive—36 pts GM-EIA positive—7 pts
Candidosis
PCR + M-EIA positive: 9 pts PCR positive: 2 pts M-EIA positive: 1 pt Negative all tests: 55 pts | |
Overall mortality | 16/88 (18.1 %) | 36/146 (24.6 %) | 8/26 (31 %) | 2/40 (5 %) | 2/17 (11.7 %a) | 3/36 (8.3 %a) | 42/125 (33.6 %) | ||
IFD mortality | Primary—2/17 (11.7 %a) Contributing—4/17 (24 %a) EIA positive—7/17 (41.1 %) | Primary cause in IFD group—4/36 (11.1 %) Primary cause overall—4/146 (2.7 %) | 2/26 (8 %) | 0 | 1 (5.9 %a) | 0 | 10/125 (8 %) | ||
Time frame | 12 weeks | 3 months | 30 days | 100 days | 1 year |
Country | France (Cordonnier et al. 2009) [25] | Germany (Hebart et al. 2009) [39] | ||
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Pt population | ≥18 years with haematological malignancy scheduled for chemotherapy or autologous HSCT and expected to cause neutropaenia for at least 10 days | Allogeneic HSCT | ||
Antifungal prophylaxis | Site-specific (range 42–48 %) | 100 % oral amphotericin B, fluconazole | ||
Treatment | Empirical | Pre-emptive | Empiric | PCR-based |
• Therapy started on Day 4 of persistent fever with antibiotic treatment • Recurrent fever between Days 4 and 14 | After 4 days of fever and antibiotic treatment • Clinically and imaging documented pneumonia or acute sinusitis • Grade 3 mucositis • Septic shock • Skin lesion suggesting IFD • Unexplained CNS symptoms • Periorbital inflammation • Splenic or hepatic abscess • Severe diarrhoea • Aspergillus colonisation • Positive GM defined as an index ≥1.5 | • Febrile neutropaenia >120 h not responsive to broad-spectrum antibiotics • Detection of pulmonary infiltrate | • One positive PCR result • Febrile neutropaenia >120 h not responsive to broad-spectrum antibiotics • Detection of pulmonary infiltrate | |
Treatment regimen | L-AMB or C-AMB depending on renal function | L-AMB | ||
Outcomes | Empirical | Pre-emptive | Empirical | PCR-based |
Pts randomised | 150 | 143 | 207 | 196 |
Pts receiving antifungal treatment | 92 | 56 | 76 | 112 |
Duration of neutropaenia <500 cells/mm3 (days) | Median 18 (6–69) | Median 17 (5–57) | Not reported | Not reported |
Indication for treatment | • Isolated fever 4–14 days after antibiotics—59.8 % • Pneumonia—6.5 % • Severe mucositis—8.7 % • Isolated fever beyond Day 14—12.0 % • Septic shock—5.4 % • +GM test—2.2 % • Skin lesion—2.2 % • Sinusitis or periorbital inflammation—0 • Neurological symptoms—2.2 % • Diarrhoea—1.1 % | • Isolated fever 4–14 days after antibiotics—1.8 %** • Pneumonia—46.4 % • Severe mucositis—17.9 % • Isolated fever beyond Day 14—12.5 % • Septic shock—5.4 % • +GM test—5.4 % • Skin lesion—3.6 % • Sinusitis or periorbital inflammation—5.4 % • Neurological symptoms—0 • Diarrhoea—1.8 % | Most frequently reported • Fever—58 % • Pulmonary infiltrates—22.6 % | Most frequently reported • PCR-based—49.7 % • Fever—27.2 % • Pulmonary infiltrates—12.4 % |
Antifungal use | 61.3 % | 39.2 %** | 36.7 % | 57.1 %*** |
IFD | 2.7 % | 9.1 %* | 8.2 % | 8.2 % |
Reported organisms | Proven/probable—4 cases
Aspergillus spp.—100 % | Proven/probable—13 cases
Aspergillus spp.—61.5 %
Candida spp.—38.5 % | Proven IFDs: 16 cases
Candida—69 %
Aspergillus—25 %
Candida and Aspergillus—6 % | Proven IFDs: 12 cases
Candida—33.3 %
Aspergillus—33.3 %
Candida and Aspergillus—33.3 % |
Mortality | 4/150 (2.7 %) | 7/143 (4.9 %) | 30 days: 6.3 % 91 days: 16.4 % | 30 days: 1.5 %a
91 days: 16.3 % |
IFI IFD mortality | 0 | 3/143 (2.1 %) | 10/76 (13.2 %) | 7/112 (6.3 %) |
Time frame | 14 days after recovery from neutropaenia or if persistent neutropaenia 60 days after study inclusion or adverse event | 30 days, 91 days (12-week mortality benchmark) |