nach oben

Neuropsychology Review

Erschienen in:

01.06.2013 | Review

Effects of Cannabis on Neurocognitive Functioning: Recent Advances, Neurodevelopmental Influences, and Sex Differences

verfasst von: Natania A. Crane, Randi Melissa Schuster, Paolo Fusar-Poli, Raul Gonzalez

Erschienen in: Neuropsychology Review | Ausgabe 2/2013

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Decades of research have examined the effects of cannabis on neurocognition. Recent advances in this field provide us with a better understanding of how cannabis use influences neurocognition both acutely (during intoxication) and non-acutely (after acute effects subside). Evidence of problems with episodic memory is one of the most consistent findings reported; however, several other neurocognitive domains appear to be adversely affected by cannabis use under various conditions. There is significant variability in findings across studies, thus a discussion of potential moderators is increasingly relevant. The purpose of this review was to 1) provide an update on research of cannabis’ acute and non-acute effects on neurocognition, with a focus on findings since 2007 and 2) suggest and discuss how neurodevelopmental issues and sex differences may influence cannabis effects on neurocognition. Finally we discuss how future investigations may lead to better understanding of the complex interplay among cannabis, stages of neurodevelopment, and sex on neurocognitive functioning.

Abdullaev, Y., Posner, M. I., Nunnally, R., & Dishion, T. J. (2010). Functional MRI evidence for inefficient attentional control in adolescent chronic cannabis abuse. Behavioural Brain Research, 215(1), 45–57.PubMedCrossRef

Abush, H., & Akirav, I. (2012). Short- and long-term cognitive effects of chronic cannabinoids administration in late-adolescence rats. PLoS One, 7(2), e31731.PubMedCrossRef

Aharonovich, E., Brooks, A. C., Nunes, E. V., & Hasin, D. S. (2008). Cognitive deficits in marijuana users: effects on motivational enhancement therapy plus cognitive behavioral therapy treatment outcome. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 95(3), 279–283.PubMedCrossRef

Anderson, B. M., Rizzo, M., Block, R. I., Pearlson, G. D., & O’Leary, D. S. (2010). Sex, drugs, and cognition: effects of marijuana. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(4), 413–424.PubMedCrossRef

Asbridge, M., Hayden, J. A., & Cartwright, J. L. (2012). Acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk: systematic review of observational studies and meta-analysis. BMJ, 344, e536.PubMedCrossRef

Ballard, M. E., Gallo, D. A., & de Wit, H. (2012). Psychoactive drugs and false memory: comparison of dextroamphetamine and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on false recognition. Psychopharmacology, 219(1), 15–24.PubMedCrossRef

Battisti, R. A., Roodenrys, S., Johnstone, S. J., Pesa, N., Hermens, D. F., & Solowij, N. (2010). Chronic cannabis users show altered neurophysiological functioning on Stroop task conflict resolution. Psychopharmacology, 212(4), 613–624.PubMedCrossRef

Battisti, R. A., Roodenrys, S., Johnstone, S. J., Respondek, C., Hermens, D. F., & Solowij, N. (2010). Chronic use of cannabis and poor neural efficiency in verbal memory ability. Psychopharmacology, 209(4), 319–330.PubMedCrossRef

Bava, S., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). Adolescent brain development and the risk for alcohol and other drug problems. Neuropsychology Review, 20(4), 398–413.PubMedCrossRef

Bechara, A. (2005). Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nature Neuroscience, 8(11), 1458–1463.PubMedCrossRef

Becker, B., Wagner, D., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Spuentrup, E., & Daumann, J. (2010). The impact of early-onset cannabis use on functional brain correlates of working memory. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 34(6), 837–845.CrossRef

Bhattacharyya, S., Fusar-Poli, P., Borgwardt, S., Martin-Santos, R., Nosarti, C., O’Carroll, C., et al. (2009). Modulation of mediotemporal and ventrostriatal function in humans by Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a neural basis for the effects of Cannabis sativa on learning and psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(4), 442–451.PubMedCrossRef

Bhattacharyya, S., Morrison, P. D., Fusar-Poli, P., Martin-Santos, R., Borgwardt, S., Winton-Brown, T., et al. (2010). Opposite effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on human brain function and psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(3), 764–774.PubMedCrossRef

Bhattacharyya, S., Crippa, J. A., Allen, P., Martin-Santos, R., Borgwardt, S., Fusar-Poli, P., et al. (2012). Induction of psychosis by Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol reflects modulation of prefrontal and striatal function during attentional salience processing. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(1), 27–36.PubMedCrossRef

Boggio, P. S., Zaghi, S., Villani, A. B., Fecteau, S., Pascual-Leone, A., & Fregni, F. (2010). Modulation of risk-taking in marijuana users by transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 112(3), 220–225.PubMedCrossRef

Bolla, K. I., Eldreth, D. A., Matochik, J. A., & Cadet, J. L. (2004). Sex-related differences in a gambling task and its neurological correlates. Cerebral Cortex, 14(11), 1226–1232.PubMedCrossRef

Bolla, K. I., Eldreth, D. A., Matochik, J. A., & Cadet, J. L. (2005). Neural substrates of faulty decision-making in abstinent marijuana users. NeuroImage, 26(2), 480–492.PubMedCrossRef

Borgwardt, S. J., Allen, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Fusar-Poli, P., Crippa, J. A., Seal, M. L., et al. (2008). Neural basis of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol: effects during response inhibition. Biological Psychiatry, 64(11), 966–973.PubMedCrossRef

Bossong, M. G., Jager, G., van Hell, H. H., Zuurman, L., Jansma, J. M., Mehta, M. A., et al. (2012). Effects of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration on human encoding and recall memory function: a pharmacological FMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(3), 588–599.PubMedCrossRef

Bossong, M. G., Jansma, J. M., van Hell, H. H., Jager, G., Oudman, E., Saliasi, E., et al. (2012). Effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on human working memory function. Biological Psychiatry, 71(8), 693–699.

Bradshaw, H. B., Rimmerman, N., Krey, J. F., & Walker, J. M. (2006). Sex and hormonal cycle differences in rat brain levels of pain-related cannabimimetic lipid mediators. American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 291(2), R349–R358.PubMedCrossRef

Burgdorf, J. R., Kilmer, B., & Pacula, R. L. (2011). Heterogeneity in the composition of marijuana seized in California. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 117(1), 59–61.PubMedCrossRef

Burston, J. J., Wiley, J. L., Craig, A. A., Selley, D. E., & Sim-Selley, L. J. (2010). Regional enhancement of cannabinoid CB₁ receptor desensitization in female adolescent rats following repeated Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure. British Journal of Pharmacology, 161(1), 103–112.PubMedCrossRef

Busemeyer, J. R., & Stout, J. C. (2002). A contribution of cognitive decision models to clinical assessment: decomposing performance on the Bechara gambling task. Psychological Assessment, 14(3), 253–262.PubMedCrossRef

Cane, J. E., Sharma, D., & Albery, I. P. (2009). The addiction Stroop task: examining the fast and slow effects of smoking and marijuana-related cues. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 23(5), 510–519.PubMedCrossRef

Cha, Y. M., Jones, K. H., Kuhn, C. M., Wilson, W. A., & Swartzwelder, H. S. (2007). Sex differences in the effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on spatial learning in adolescent and adult rats. Behavioural Pharmacology, 18(5–6), 563–569.PubMedCrossRef

Chang, L., Yakupov, R., Cloak, C., & Ernst, T. (2006). Marijuana use is associated with a reorganized visual-attention network and cerebellar hypoactivation. Brain, 129(Pt 5), 1096–1112.PubMedCrossRef

Clark, L., Cools, R., & Robbins, T. W. (2004). The neuropsychology of ventral prefrontal cortex: decision-making and reversal learning. Brain and Cognition, 55(1), 41–53.PubMedCrossRef

Clark, L., Roiser, J. P., Robbins, T. W., & Sahakian, B. J. (2009). Disrupted ‘reflection’ impulsivity in cannabis users but not current or former ecstasy users. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 23(1), 14–22.PubMedCrossRef

Cocchetto, D. M., Owens, S. M., Perez-Reyes, M., DiGuiseppi, S., & Miller, L. L. (1981). Relationship between plasma delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentration and pharmacologic effects in man. Psychopharmacology, 75(2), 158–164.PubMedCrossRef

Cohen, P. J. (2010). Medical marijuana 2010: it’s time to fix the regulatory vacuum. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 38(3), 654–666.CrossRef

Compton, W. M., Grant, B. F., Colliver, J. D., Glantz, M. D., & Stinson, F. S. (2004). Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States: 1991–1992 and 2001–2002. Journal of the American Medical Association, 291(17), 2114–2121.PubMedCrossRef

Crean, R. D., Crane, N. A., & Mason, B. J. (2011). An evidence based review of acute and long-term effects of cannabis Use on executive cognitive functions. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 5(1), 1–8.PubMedCrossRef

Crippa, J. A., Zuardi, A. W., Martin-Santos, R., Bhattacharyya, S., Atakan, Z., McGuire, P., et al. (2009). Cannabis and anxiety: a critical review of the evidence. Human Psychopharmacology, 24(7), 515–523.PubMedCrossRef

Crippa, J. A., Derenusson, G. N., Ferrari, T. B., Wichert-Ana, L., Duran, F. L., Martin-Santos, R., et al. (2011). Neural basis of anxiolytic effects of cannabidiol (CBD) in generalized social anxiety disorder: a preliminary report. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(1), 121–130.PubMedCrossRef

Cunha, P. J., Nicastri, S., de Andrade, A. G., & Bolla, K. I. (2010). The frontal assessment battery (FAB) reveals neurocognitive dysfunction in substance-dependent individuals in distinct executive domains: abstract reasoning, motor programming, and cognitive flexibility. Addictive Behaviors, 35(10), 875–881.PubMedCrossRef

de Wit, H. (2009). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: a review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology, 14(1), 22–31.PubMedCrossRef

Drummer, O. H., Gerostamoulos, J., Batziris, H., Chu, M., Caplehorn, J. R., Robertson, M. D., et al. (2003). The incidence of drugs in drivers killed in Australian road traffic crashes. Forensic Science International, 134(2–3), 154–162.PubMedCrossRef

D’Souza, D. C., Braley, G., Blaise, R., Vendetti, M., Oliver, S., Pittman, B., et al. (2008). Effects of haloperidol on the behavioral, subjective, cognitive, motor, and neuroendocrine effects of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans. Psychopharmacology, 198(4), 587–603.PubMedCrossRef

D’Souza, D. C., Ranganathan, M., Braley, G., Gueorguieva, R., Zimolo, Z., Cooper, T., et al. (2008). Blunted psychotomimetic and amnestic effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in frequent users of cannabis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(10), 2505–2516.PubMedCrossRef

Dumont, G. J., van Hasselt, J. G., de Kam, M., van Gerven, J. M., Touw, D. J., Buitelaar, J. K., et al. (2011). Acute psychomotor, memory and subjective effects of MDMA and THC co-administration over time in healthy volunteers. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(4), 478–489.PubMedCrossRef

Durston, S., Hulshoff Pol, H. E., Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., Buitelaar, J. K., & van Engeland, H. (2001). Anatomical MRI of the developing human brain: what have we learned? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(9), 1012–1020.PubMedCrossRef

Ehrenreich, H., Rinn, T., Kunert, H. J., Moeller, M. R., Poser, W., Schilling, L., et al. (1999). Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use. Psychopharmacology, 142(3), 295–301.PubMedCrossRef

Elikkottil, J., Gupta, P., & Gupta, K. (2009). The analgesic potential of cannabinoids. Journal of Opioid Management, 5(6), 341–357.PubMed

Ellis, R. J., Toperoff, W., Vaida, F., van den Brande, G., Gonzales, J., Gouaux, B., et al. (2009). Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trial. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34(3), 672–680.PubMedCrossRef

Elsohly, M. A., & Slade, D. (2005). Chemical constituents of marijuana: the complex mixture of natural cannabinoids. Life Sciences, 78(5), 539–548.PubMedCrossRef

Fairfield, K. M., Eisenberg, D. M., Davis, R. B., Libman, H., & Phillips, R. S. (1998). Patterns of use, expenditures, and perceived efficacy of complementary and alternative therapies in HIV-infected patients. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158(20), 2257–2264.PubMedCrossRef

Fattore, L., Spano, M. S., Altea, S., Angius, F., Fadda, P., & Fratta, W. (2007). Cannabinoid self-administration in rats: sex differences and the influence of ovarian function. British Journal of Pharmacology, 152(5), 795–804.PubMedCrossRef

Fernandez-Serrano, M. J., Perez-Garcia, M., Schmidt Rio-Valle, J., & Verdejo-Garcia, A. (2010). Neuropsychological consequences of alcohol and drug abuse on different components of executive functions. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 24(9), 1317–1332.PubMedCrossRef

Fernandez-Serrano, M. J., Perez-Garcia, M., & Verdejo-Garcia, A. (2011). What are the specific vs. generalized effects of drugs of abuse on neuropsychological performance? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(3), 377–406.PubMedCrossRef

Ferraro, D. P. (1980). Acute effects of marijuana on human memory and cognition. NIDA Research Monograph, 31, 98–119.PubMed

Fisk, J. E., & Montgomery, C. (2008). Real-world memory and executive processes in cannabis users and non-users. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22(7), 727–736.PubMedCrossRef

Fontes, M. A., Bolla, K. I., Cunha, P. J., Almeida, P. P., Jungerman, F., Laranjeira, R. R., et al. (2011a). Cannabis use before age 15 and subsequent executive functioning. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 198(6), 442–447.PubMedCrossRef

Fontes, M. A., Bolla, K. I., Cunha, P. J., Almeida, P. P., Jungerman, F., Laranjeira, R. R., et al. (2011b). Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) is a simple tool for detecting executive deficits in chronic cannabis users. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(5), 523–531.PubMedCrossRef

Fridberg, D. J., Queller, S., Ahn, W. Y., Kim, W., Bishara, A. J., Busemeyer, J. R., et al. (2010). Cognitive mechanisms underlying risky decision-making in chronic cannabis users. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 54(1), 28–38.PubMedCrossRef

Fusar-Poli, P., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2012a). Striatal presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, Part I: meta-analysis of dopamine active transporter (DAT) density. Schizophrenia Bulletin. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr111.

Fusar-Poli, P., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2012b). Striatal presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, Part II: meta-analysis of [18F/11C]-DOPA PET studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr180.

Fusar-Poli, P., Crippa, J. A., Bhattacharyya, S., Borgwardt, S. J., Allen, P., Martin-Santos, R., et al. (2009). Distinct effects of {delta}9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on neural activation during emotional processing. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(1), 95–105.PubMedCrossRef

Fusar-Poli, P., Allen, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Crippa, J. A., Mechelli, A., Borgwardt, S., et al. (2010a). Modulation of effective connectivity during emotional processing by Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 13(4), 421–432.PubMedCrossRef

Fusar-Poli, P., Howes, O. D., Allen, P., Broome, M., Valli, I., Asselin, M. C., et al. (2010b). Abnormal frontostriatal interactions in people with prodromal signs of psychosis: a multimodal imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(7), 683–691.PubMedCrossRef

Fusar-Poli, P., Borgwardt, S., Crescini, A., Deste, G., Kempton, M. J., Lawrie, S., et al. (2011a). Neuroanatomy of vulnerability to psychosis: a voxel-based meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(5), 1175–1185.PubMedCrossRef

Fusar-Poli, P., Howes, O. D., Allen, P., Broome, M., Valli, I., Asselin, M. C., et al. (2011b). Abnormal prefrontal activation directly related to pre-synaptic striatal dopamine dysfunction in people at clinical high risk for psychosis. Molecular Psychiatry, 16(1), 67–75.PubMedCrossRef

Fusar-Poli, P., Radua, J., McGuire, P., & Borgwardt, S. (2011c). Neuroanatomical maps of psychosis onset: voxel-wise meta-analysis of antipsychotic-naive VBM studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr134.

Fusar-Poli, P., Stone, J. M., Broome, M. R., Valli, I., Mechelli, A., McLean, M. A., et al. (2011d). Thalamic glutamate levels as a predictor of cortical response during executive functioning in subjects at high risk for psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(9), 881–890.PubMedCrossRef

Fusar-Poli, P., Bechdolf, A., Taylor, M. J., Bonoldi, I., Carpenter, W. T., Yung, A. R., et al. (2012). At risk for schizophrenic or affective psychoses? A meta-analysis of DSM/ICD diagnostic outcomes in individuals at high clinical risk. Schizophrenia Bulletin. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs060.

Fusar-Poli, P., Borgwardt, S., Bechdolf, A., Addington, J., Riecher-Rössler, A., Schultze-Lutter, F., et al. (in press). The psychosis high risk state: a comprehensive state of the art review. Archives of General Psychiatry.

Gfroerer, J. C., & Epstein, J. F. (1999). Marijuana initiates and their impact on future drug abuse treatment need. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 54(3), 229–237.PubMedCrossRef

Giedd, J. N. (2004). Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 77–85.PubMedCrossRef

Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., et al. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 861–863.PubMedCrossRef

Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., et al. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(21), 8174–8179.PubMedCrossRef

Goldstein, R. Z., & Volkow, N. D. (2002). Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(10), 1642–1652.PubMedCrossRef

Gonzalez, R. (2007). Acute and non-acute effects of cannabis on brain functioning and neuropsychological performance. Neuropsychology Review, 17(3), 347–361.PubMedCrossRef

Gonzalez, S., Mauriello-Romanazzi, G., Berrendero, F., Ramos, J. A., Franzoni, M. F., & Fernandez-Ruiz, J. (2000). Decreased cannabinoid CB1 receptor mRNA levels and immunoreactivity in pituitary hyperplasia induced by prolonged exposure to estrogens. Pituitary, 3(4), 221–226.PubMedCrossRef

Gonzalez, R., Carey, C., & Grant, I. (2002). Nonacute (residual) neuropsychological effects of cannabis use: a qualitative analysis and systematic review. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 42(11 Suppl), 48S–57S.PubMed

Gonzalez, R., Rippeth, J. D., Carey, C. L., Heaton, R. K., Moore, D. J., Schweinsburg, B. C., et al. (2004). Neurocognitive performance of methamphetamine users discordant for history of marijuana exposure. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 76(2), 181–190.PubMedCrossRef

Gonzalez, R., Bechara, A., & Martin, E. M. (2007). Executive functions among individuals with methamphetamine or alcohol as drugs of choice: preliminary observations. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29(2), 155–159.PubMedCrossRef

Gonzalez, R., Vassileva, J., & Scott, J. C. (2009). Neuropsychological consequences of drug abuse. In I. Grant & K. M. Adams (Eds.), Neuropsychological Assessment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders (3rd ed., pp. 455–479). New York: Oxford University Press.

Gonzalez, R., Schuster, R. M., Vassileva, J., & Martin, E. M. (2011). Impact of HIV and a history of marijuana dependence on procedural learning among individuals with a history of substance dependence. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(7), 735–752.PubMedCrossRef

Gonzalez, R., Schuster, R.M., Crane, N.A., Martin, E.M., Vassileva, J. (2012). Decision-Making Performance Influences the Relationship between Amount of Cannabis use and its Negative Consequences. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18. doi:10.1017/S1355617712000549.

Gonzalez, R., Schuster, R. M., Mermelstein, R. J., Vassileva, J., Martin, E. M., & Diviak, K. R. (2012). Performance of young adult cannabis users on neurocognitive measures of impulsive behavior and their relationships to symptoms of cannabis use disorders. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.703642

Gorzalka, B. B., Hill, M. N., & Hillard, C. J. (2008). Regulation of endocannabinoid signaling by stress: implications for stress-related affective disorders. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(6), 1152–1160.PubMedCrossRef

Grant, I., Gonzalez, R., Carey, C. L., Natarajan, L., & Wolfson, T. (2003). Non-acute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: a meta-analytic study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9(5), 679–689.PubMedCrossRef

Grant, J. E., Chamberlain, S. R., Schreiber, L., & Odlaug, B. L. (2011). Neuropsychological deficits associated with cannabis use in young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 121(1-2), 159–162.

Gruber, S. A., Sagar, K. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Racine, M., & Lukas, S. E. (2012). Age of onset of marijuana use and executive function. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(3), 496–506.

Gruber, S. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Sagar, K. A., Gonenc, A., & Killgore, W. D. (2012). Age of onset of marijuana use impacts inhibitory processing. Neuroscience Letters, 511(2), 89–94.PubMedCrossRef

Gur, R. C., Richard, J., Calkins, M. E., Chiavacci, R., Hansen, J. A., Bilker, W. B., et al. (2012). Age group and sex differences in performance on a computerized neurocognitive battery in children age 8–21. Neuropsychology, 26(2), 251–265.PubMedCrossRef

Hadjiefthyvoulou, F., Fisk, J. E., Montgomery, C., & Bridges, N. (2011). Prospective memory functioning among ecstasy/polydrug users: evidence from the Cambridge Prospective Memory Test (CAMPROMPT). Psychopharmacology, 215(4), 761–774.PubMedCrossRef

Hampson, A. J., Grimaldi, M., Axelrod, J., & Wink, D. (1998). Cannabidiol and (−)Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol are neuroprotective antioxidants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95(14), 8268–8273.PubMedCrossRef

Hanson, K. L., Winward, J. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Medina, K. L., Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). Longitudinal study of cognition among adolescent marijuana users over three weeks of abstinence. Addictive Behaviors, 35(11), 970–976.PubMedCrossRef

Hart, C. L., Ilan, A. B., Gevins, A., Gunderson, E. W., Role, K., Colley, J., et al. (2010). Neurophysiological and cognitive effects of smoked marijuana in frequent users. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 96(3), 333–341.PubMedCrossRef

Harte, L. C., & Dow-Edwards, D. (2010). Sexually dimorphic alterations in locomotion and reversal learning after adolescent tetrahydrocannabinol exposure in the rat. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 32(5), 515–524.PubMedCrossRef

Harvey, M. A., Sellman, J. D., Porter, R. J., & Frampton, C. M. (2007). The relationship between non-acute adolescent cannabis use and cognition. Drug and Alcohol Review, 26(3), 309–319.PubMedCrossRef

Hermann, D., Sartorius, A., Welzel, H., Walter, S., Skopp, G., Ende, G., et al. (2007). Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex N-acetylaspartate/total creatine (NAA/tCr) loss in male recreational cannabis users. Biological Psychiatry, 61(11), 1281–1289.PubMedCrossRef

Hermann, D., Lemenager, T., Gelbke, J., Welzel, H., Skopp, G., & Mann, K. (2009). Decision making of heavy cannabis users on the Iowa Gambling Task: stronger association with THC of hair analysis than with personality traits of the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire. European Addiction Research, 15(2), 94–98.PubMedCrossRef

Hernandez-Avila, C. A., Rounsaville, B. J., & Kranzler, H. R. (2004). Opioid-, cannabis- and alcohol-dependent women show more rapid progression to substance abuse treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 74(3), 265–272.PubMedCrossRef

Hester, R., Nestor, L., & Garavan, H. (2009). Impaired error awareness and anterior cingulate cortex hypoactivity in chronic cannabis users. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34(11), 2450–2458.PubMedCrossRef

Huestegge, L., Kunert, H. J., & Radach, R. (2010). Long-term effects of cannabis on eye movement control in reading. Psychopharmacology, 209(1), 77–84.PubMedCrossRef

Hunault, C. C., Mensinga, T. T., Bocker, K. B., Schipper, C. M., Kruidenier, M., Leenders, M. E., et al. (2009). Cognitive and psychomotor effects in males after smoking a combination of tobacco and cannabis containing up to 69 mg delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Psychopharmacology, 204(1), 85–94.PubMedCrossRef

Indlekofer, F., Piechatzek, M., Daamen, M., Glasmacher, C., Lieb, R., Pfister, H., et al. (2009). Reduced memory and attention performance in a population-based sample of young adults with a moderate lifetime use of cannabis, ecstasy and alcohol. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 23(5), 495–509.PubMedCrossRef

Iversen, L. (2003). Cannabis and the brain. Brain, 126(6), 1252–1270.PubMedCrossRef

Jacobsen, L. K., Mencl, W. E., Westerveld, M., & Pugh, K. R. (2004). Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 384–390.PubMedCrossRef

Jacobsen, L. K., Pugh, K. R., Constable, R. T., Westerveld, M., & Mencl, W. E. (2007). Functional correlates of verbal memory deficits emerging during nicotine withdrawal in abstinent adolescent cannabis users. Biological Psychiatry, 61(1), 31–40.PubMedCrossRef

Jacobus, J., McQueeny, T., Bava, S., Schweinsburg, B. C., Frank, L. R., Yang, T. T., et al. (2009). White matter integrity in adolescents with histories of marijuana use and binge drinking. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 31(6), 349–355.PubMedCrossRef

Jager, G., & Ramsey, N. F. (2008). Long-term consequences of adolescent cannabis exposure on the development of cognition, brain structure and function: an overview of animal and human research. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 1(2), 114–123.PubMedCrossRef

Jager, G., Kahn, R. S., Van Den Brink, W., Van Ree, J. M., & Ramsey, N. F. (2006). Long-term effects of frequent cannabis use on working memory and attention: an fMRI study. Psychopharmacology, 185(3), 358–368.PubMedCrossRef

Jager, G., Van Hell, H. H., De Win, M. M., Kahn, R. S., Van Den Brink, W., Van Ree, J. M., et al. (2007). Effects of frequent cannabis use on hippocampal activity during an associative memory task. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 17(4), 289–297.PubMedCrossRef

Jager, G., Block, R. I., Luijten, M., & Ramsey, N. F. (2010). Cannabis use and memory brain function in adolescent boys: a cross-sectional multicenter functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(6), 561–572, 572 e561-563.

Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2011. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

Kalant, H. (2004). Adverse effects of cannabis on health: an update of the literature since 1996. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 28(5), 849–863.CrossRef

King, G. R., Ernst, T., Deng, W., Stenger, A., Gonzales, R. M., Nakama, H., et al. (2011). Altered brain activation during visuomotor integration in chronic active cannabis users: relationship to cortisol levels. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(49), 17923–17931.PubMedCrossRef

Korver, N., Nieman, D. H., Becker, H. E., van de Fliert, J. R., Dingemans, P. H., de Haan, L., et al. (2010). Symptomatology and neuropsychological functioning in cannabis using subjects at ultra-high risk for developing psychosis and healthy controls. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(3), 230–236.PubMedCrossRef

Kramer, J. H., Delis, D. C., & Daniel, M. (1988). Sex-differences in verbal-learning. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(6), 907–915.CrossRef

Lane, S. D., Cherek, D. R., Tcheremissine, O. V., Lieving, L. M., & Pietras, C. J. (2005). Acute marijuana effects on human risk taking. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30(4), 800–809.PubMedCrossRef

Lane, S. D., Cherek, D. R., Tcheremissine, O. V., Steinberg, J. L., & Sharon, J. L. (2007). Response perseveration and adaptation in heavy marijuana-smoking adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 32(5), 977–990.PubMedCrossRef

Lastres-Becker, I., Molina-Holgado, F., Ramos, J. A., Mechoulam, R., & Fernandez-Ruiz, J. (2005). Cannabinoids provide neuroprotection against 6-hydroxydopamine toxicity in vivo and in vitro: relevance to Parkinson’s disease. Neurobiology of Disease, 19(1–2), 96–107.PubMedCrossRef

Lenroot, R. K., Gogtay, N., Greenstein, D. K., Wells, E. M., Wallace, G. L., Clasen, L. S., et al. (2007). Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence. NeuroImage, 36(4), 1065–1073.PubMedCrossRef

Li, M. C., Brady, J. E., DiMaggio, C. J., Lusardi, A. R., Tzong, K. Y., & Li, G. (2012). Marijuana use and motor vehicle crashes. Epidemiologic Reviews, 34(1), 65–72.PubMedCrossRef

Looby, A., & Earleywine, M. (2010). Gender moderates the impact of stereotype threat on cognitive function in cannabis users. Addictive Behaviors, 35(9), 834–839.PubMedCrossRef

Lopez, H. H. (2010). Cannabinoid-hormone interactions in the regulation of motivational processes. Hormones and Behavior, 58(1), 100–110.PubMedCrossRef

Mackie, K. (2005). Distribution of cannabinoid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous system. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 168, 299–325.PubMedCrossRef

Mahmood, O. M., Jacobus, J., Bava, S., Scarlett, A., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). Learning and memory performances in adolescent users of alcohol and marijuana: interactive effects. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71(6), 885–894.PubMed

Makela, P., Wakeley, J., Gijsman, H., Robson, P. J., Bhagwagar, Z., & Rogers, R. D. (2006). Low doses of delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) have divergent effects on short-term spatial memory in young, healthy adults. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31(2), 462–470.PubMedCrossRef

Malone, D. T., Hill, M. N., & Rubino, T. (2010). Adolescent cannabis use and psychosis: epidemiology and neurodevelopmental models. British Journal of Pharmacology, 160(3), 511–522.PubMedCrossRef

Martin-Santos, R., Fagundo, A. B., Crippa, J. A., Atakan, Z., Bhattacharyya, S., Allen, P., Fusar-Poli, P., Borgwardt, S., Seal, M., Busatto, G. F., & McGuire, P. (2010). Neuroimaging in cannabis use: a systematic review of the literature. Psychological Medicine, 40(3), 383–398.PubMedCrossRef

Martin-Soelch, C., Kobel, M., Stoecklin, M., Michael, T., Weber, S., Krebs, B., et al. (2009). Reduced response to reward in smokers and cannabis users. Neuropsychobiology, 60(2), 94–103.PubMedCrossRef

Mason, B. J., Crean, R., Goodell, V., Light, J. M., Quello, S., Shadan, F., et al. (2012). A proof-of-concept randomized controlled study of gabapentin: effects on cannabis use, withdrawal and executive function deficits in cannabis-dependent adults. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(7), 1689–1698.PubMedCrossRef

Mateos, B., Borcel, E., Loriga, R., Luesu, W., Bini, V., Llorente, R., et al. (2011). Adolescent exposure to nicotine and/or the cannabinoid agonist CP 55,940 induces gender-dependent long-lasting memory impairments and changes in brain nicotinic and CB(1) cannabinoid receptors. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(12), 1676–1690.PubMedCrossRef

McDonald, J., Schleifer, L., Richards, J. B., & de Wit, H. (2003). Effects of THC on behavioral measures of impulsivity in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(7), 1356–1365.PubMedCrossRef

McHale, S., & Hunt, N. (2008). Executive function deficits in short-term abstinent cannabis users. Human Psychopharmacology, 23(5), 409–415.PubMedCrossRef

McQueeny, T., Padula, C. B., Price, J., Medina, K. L., Logan, P., & Tapert, S. F. (2011). Gender effects on amygdala morphometry in adolescent marijuana users. Behavioural Brain Research, 224(1), 128–134.PubMedCrossRef

Mechoulam, R., Spatz, M., & Shohami, E. (2002). Endocannabinoids and neuroprotection. Science Signaling, 2002(129), re5.CrossRef

Mechoulam, R., Peters, M., Murillo-Rodriguez, E., & Hanus, L. O. (2007). Cannabidiol–recent advances. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 4(8), 1678–1692.CrossRef

Medina, K. L., Hanson, K. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Cohen-Zion, M., Nagel, B. J., & Tapert, S. F. (2007). Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: subtle deficits detectable after a month of abstinence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(5), 807–820.PubMedCrossRef

Medina, K. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Cohen-Zion, M., Nagel, B. J., & Tapert, S. F. (2007). Effects of alcohol and combined marijuana and alcohol use during adolescence on hippocampal volume and asymmetry. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 29(1), 141–152.PubMedCrossRef

Medina, K. L., McQueeny, T., Nagel, B. J., Hanson, K. L., Yang, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2009). Prefrontal cortex morphometry in abstinent adolescent marijuana users: subtle gender effects. Addiction Biology, 14(4), 457–468.PubMedCrossRef

Moeller, F. G., Barratt, E. S., Dougherty, D. M., Schmitz, J. M., & Swann, A. C. (2001). Psychiatric aspects of impulsivity. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(11), 1783–1793.PubMedCrossRef

Montgomery, C., Seddon, A. L., Fisk, J. E., Murphy, P. N., & Jansari, A. (2012). Cannabis-related deficits in real-world memory. Human Psychopharmacology, 27(2), 217–225.PubMedCrossRef

Morgan, C. J., Gardener, C., Schafer, G., Swan, S., Demarchi, C., Freeman, T. P., et al. (2012). Sub-chronic impact of cannabinoids in street cannabis on cognition, psychotic-like symptoms and psychological well-being. Psychological Medicine, 42(2), 391–400.

Morgan, C. J., Schafer, G., Freeman, T. P., & Curran, H. V. (2010). Impact of cannabidiol on the acute memory and psychotomimetic effects of smoked cannabis: naturalistic study: naturalistic study [corrected]. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 197(4), 285–290.PubMedCrossRef

Morrison, P. D., Zois, V., McKeown, D. A., Lee, T. D., Holt, D. W., Powell, J. F., et al. (2009). The acute effects of synthetic intravenous Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on psychosis, mood and cognitive functioning. Psychological Medicine, 39(10), 1607–1616.PubMedCrossRef

Mura, P., Kintz, P., Ludes, B., Gaulier, J. M., Marquet, P., Martin-Dupont, S., et al. (2003). Comparison of the prevalence of alcohol, cannabis and other drugs between 900 injured drivers and 900 control subjects: results of a French collaborative study. Forensic Science International, 133(1–2), 79–85.PubMedCrossRef

Murphy, L. L., Steger, R. W., Smith, M. S., & Bartke, A. (1990). Effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabinol and cannabidiol, alone and in combinations, on luteinizing hormone and prolactin release and on hypothalamic neurotransmitters in the male rat. Neuroendocrinology, 52(4), 316–321.PubMedCrossRef

Murphy, L. L., Newton, S. C., Dhali, J., & Chavez, D. (1991). Evidence for a direct anterior pituitary site of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol action. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 40(3), 603–607.CrossRef

Murphy, L. L., Rodriguez de Fonseca, F., & Steger, R. W. (1991). delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol antagonism of the anterior pituitary response to estradiol in immature female rats. Steroids, 56(2), 97–102.PubMedCrossRef

Murphy, L. L., Gher, J., Steger, R. W., & Bartke, A. (1994). Effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on copulatory behavior and neuroendocrine responses of male rats to female conspecifics. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 48(4), 1011–1017.CrossRef

Murphy, L. L., Adrian, B. A., & Kohli, M. (1999). Inhibition of luteinizing hormone secretion by delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the ovariectomized rat: effect of pretreatment with neurotransmitter or neuropeptide receptor antagonists. Steroids, 64(9), 664–671.PubMedCrossRef

Murphy, P. N., Erwin, P. G., Maciver, L., Fisk, J. E., Larkin, D., Wareing, M., et al. (2011). The relationships of ‘ecstasy’ (MDMA) and cannabis use to impaired executive inhibition and access to semantic long-term memory. Human Psychopharmacology, 26(7), 460–469.PubMedCrossRef

Narimatsu, S., Watanabe, K., Yamamoto, I., & Yoshimura, H. (1991). Sex difference in the oxidative metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rat. Biochemical Pharmacology, 41(8), 1187–1194.PubMedCrossRef

Nestor, L., Roberts, G., Garavan, H., & Hester, R. (2008). Deficits in learning and memory: parahippocampal hyperactivity and frontocortical hypoactivity in cannabis users. NeuroImage, 40(3), 1328–1339.PubMedCrossRef

Newman, J. L., & Mello, N. K. (2009). Neuroactive gonadal steroid hormones and drug addiction in women. In K. T. Brady, S. E. Back, & S. F. Greenfield (Eds.), Women and Addiction: A Comprehensive Textbook (pp. 35–64). New York: Guildford Press.

Nixon, S. J., Paul, R., & Phillips, M. (1998). Cognitive efficiency in alcoholics and polysubstance abusers. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(7), 1414–1420.PubMedCrossRef

O’Connell, T. J., & Bou-Matar, C. B. (2007). Long term marijuana users seeking medical cannabis in California (2001–2007): demographics, social characteristics, patterns of cannabis and other drug use of 4117 applicants. Harm Reduction Journal, 4, 16.PubMedCrossRef

O’Leary, D. S., Block, R. I., Koeppel, J. A., Schultz, S. K., Magnotta, V. A., Ponto, L. B., et al. (2007). Effects of smoking marijuana on focal attention and brain blood flow. Human Psychopharmacology, 22(3), 135–148.PubMedCrossRef

O’Shea, M., Singh, M. E., McGregor, I. S., & Mallet, P. E. (2004). Chronic cannabinoid exposure produces lasting memory impairment and increased anxiety in adolescent but not adult rats. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 18(4), 502–508.PubMedCrossRef

O’Shea, M., McGregor, I. S., & Mallet, P. E. (2006). Repeated cannabinoid exposure during perinatal, adolescent or early adult ages produces similar longlasting deficits in object recognition and reduced social interaction in rats. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20(5), 611–621.PubMedCrossRef

Overman, W. H., Frassrand, K., Ansel, S., Trawalter, S., Bies, B., & Redmond, A. (2004). Performance on the IOWA card task by adolescents and adults. Neuropsychologia, 42(13), 1838–1851.PubMedCrossRef

Padula, C. B., Schweinsburg, A. D., & Tapert, S. F. (2007). Spatial working memory performance and fMRI activation interaction in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21(4), 478–487.PubMedCrossRef

Perkins, K. A., Levine, M., Marcus, M., Shiffman, S., D’Amico, D., Miller, A., et al. (2000). Tobacco withdrawal in women and menstrual cycle phase. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 176–180.PubMedCrossRef

Pertwee, R. G. (2008). Ligands that target cannabinoid receptors in the brain: from THC to anandamide and beyond. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 147–159.PubMedCrossRef

Piechatzek, M., Indlekofer, F., Daamen, M., Glasmacher, C., Lieb, R., Pfister, H., et al. (2009). Is moderate substance use associated with altered executive functioning in a population-based sample of young adults? Human Psychopharmacology, 24(8), 650–665.PubMedCrossRef

Pillay, S. S., Rogowska, J., Kanayama, G., Gruber, S., Simpson, N., Pope, H. G., et al. (2008). Cannabis and motor function: fMRI changes following 28 days of discontinuation. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(1), 22–32.PubMedCrossRef

Piomelli, D. (2003). The molecular logic of endocannabinoid signalling. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(11), 873–884.PubMedCrossRef

Pope, H. G., Jr., Gruber, A. J., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (1995). The residual neuropsychological effects of cannabis: the current status of research. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 38(1), 25–34.PubMedCrossRef

Pope, H. G., Jr., Jacobs, A., Mialet, J. P., Yurgelun-Todd, D., & Gruber, S. (1997). Evidence for a sex-specific residual effect of cannabis on visuospatial memory. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 66(4), 179–184.PubMedCrossRef

Pope, H. G., Jr., Gruber, A. J., Hudson, J. I., Cohane, G., Huestis, M. A., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2003). Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 69(3), 303–310.PubMedCrossRef

Quinn, H. R., Matsumoto, I., Callaghan, P. D., Long, L. E., Arnold, J. C., Gunasekaran, N., et al. (2008). Adolescent rats find repeated Delta(9)-THC less aversive than adult rats but display greater residual cognitive deficits and changes in hippocampal protein expression following exposure. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(5), 1113–1126.PubMedCrossRef

Ramaekers, J. G., Berghaus, G., van Laar, M., & Drummer, O. H. (2004). Dose related risk of motor vehicle crashes after cannabis use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 73(2), 109–119.PubMedCrossRef

Ramaekers, J. G., Kauert, G., Theunissen, E. L., Toennes, S. W., & Moeller, M. R. (2009). Neurocognitive performance during acute THC intoxication in heavy and occasional cannabis users. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 23(3), 266–277.PubMedCrossRef

Ramaekers, J. G., Theunissen, E. L., de Brouwer, M., Toennes, S. W., Moeller, M. R., & Kauert, G. (2011). Tolerance and cross-tolerance to neurocognitive effects of THC and alcohol in heavy cannabis users. Psychopharmacology, 214(2), 391–401.PubMedCrossRef

Ranganathan, M., & D’Souza, D. C. (2006). The acute effects of cannabinoids on memory in humans: a review. Psychopharmacology, 188(4), 425–444.PubMedCrossRef

Realini, N., Rubino, T., & Parolaro, D. (2009). Neurobiological alterations at adult age triggered by adolescent exposure to cannabinoids. Pharmacological Research, 60(2), 132–138.PubMedCrossRef

Reavis, R., & Overman, W. H. (2001). Adult sex differences on a decision-making task previously shown to depend on the orbital prefrontal cortex. Behavioral Neuroscience, 115(1), 196–206.PubMedCrossRef

Reich, C. G., Taylor, M. E., & McCarthy, M. M. (2009). Differential effects of chronic unpredictable stress on hippocampal CB1 receptors in male and female rats. Behavioural Brain Research, 203(2), 264–269.PubMedCrossRef

Roberts, G. M., & Garavan, H. (2010). Evidence of increased activation underlying cognitive control in ecstasy and cannabis users. NeuroImage, 52(2), 429–435.PubMedCrossRef

Rodriguez de Fonseca, F., Cebeira, M., Ramos, J. A., Martin, M., & Fernandez-Ruiz, J. J. (1994). Cannabinoid receptors in rat brain areas: sexual differences, fluctuations during estrous cycle and changes after gonadectomy and sex steroid replacement. Life Sciences, 54(3), 159–170.PubMedCrossRef

Rogers, R. D., Wakeley, J., Robson, P. J., Bhagwagar, Z., & Makela, P. (2007). The effects of low doses of delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol on reinforcement processing in the risky decision-making of young healthy adults. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32(2), 417–428.PubMedCrossRef

Roser, P., Gallinat, J., Weinberg, G., Juckel, G., Gorynia, I., & Stadelmann, A. M. (2009). Psychomotor performance in relation to acute oral administration of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and standardized cannabis extract in healthy human subjects. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 259(5), 284–292.PubMedCrossRef

Rubino, T., Vigano, D., Realini, N., Guidali, C., Braida, D., Capurro, V., et al. (2008). Chronic delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol during adolescence provokes sex-dependent changes in the emotional profile in adult rats: behavioral and biochemical correlates. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(11), 2760–2771.PubMedCrossRef

Rubino, T., Realini, N., Braida, D., Alberio, T., Capurro, V., Vigano, D., et al. (2009). The depressive phenotype induced in adult female rats by adolescent exposure to THC is associated with cognitive impairment and altered neuroplasticity in the prefrontal cortex. Neurotoxicity Research, 15(4), 291–302.PubMedCrossRef

Rubino, T., Realini, N., Braida, D., Guidi, S., Capurro, V., Vigano, D., et al. (2009). Changes in hippocampal morphology and neuroplasticity induced by adolescent THC treatment are associated with cognitive impairment in adulthood. Hippocampus, 19(8), 763–772.PubMedCrossRef

SAMSHA. (2011). Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings, NSDUH. Rockville: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

Schepis, T. S., Desai, R. A., Smith, A. E., Cavallo, D. A., Liss, T. B., McFetridge, A., et al. (2008). Impulsive sensation seeking, parental history of alcohol problems, and current alcohol and tobacco use in adolescents. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 2(4), 185–193.PubMedCrossRef

Scholes, K. E., & Martin-Iverson, M. T. (2009). Alterations to pre-pulse inhibition (PPI) in chronic cannabis users are secondary to sustained attention deficits. Psychopharmacology, 207(3), 469–484.PubMedCrossRef

Scholes, K. E., & Martin-Iverson, M. T. (2010). Cannabis use and neuropsychological performance in healthy individuals and patients with schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 40(10), 1635–1646.PubMedCrossRef

Scholes-Balog, K. E., & Martin-Iverson, M. T. (2011). Cannabis use and sensorimotor gating in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Human Psychopharmacology, 26(3), 373–385.

Schuster, R. M., Crane, N. A., Mermelstein, R., & Gonzalez, R. (2012). The influence of inhibitory control and episodic memory on the risky sexual behavior of young adult cannabis users. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(5), 827–833.PubMedCrossRef

Schweinsburg, A. D., Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2008). The influence of marijuana use on neurocognitive functioning in adolescents. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 1(1), 99–111.PubMedCrossRef

Schweinsburg, A. D., Schweinsburg, B. C., Medina, K. L., McQueeny, T., Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). The influence of recency of use on fMRI response during spatial working memory in adolescent marijuana users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(3), 401–412.PubMedCrossRef

Schweinsburg, A. D., Schweinsburg, B. C., Nagel, B. J., Eyler, L. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2011). Neural correlates of verbal learning in adolescent alcohol and marijuana users. Addiction, 106(3), 564–573.PubMedCrossRef

Scorticati, C., Mohn, C., De Laurentiis, A., Vissio, P., Fernandez Solari, J., Seilicovich, A., et al. (2003). The effect of anandamide on prolactin secretion is modulated by estrogen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(4), 2134–2139.PubMedCrossRef

Scorticati, C., Fernandez-Solari, J., De Laurentiis, A., Mohn, C., Prestifilippo, J. P., Lasaga, M., et al. (2004). The inhibitory effect of anandamide on luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone secretion is reversed by estrogen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(32), 11891–11896.PubMedCrossRef

Sofuoglu, M., Dudish-Poulsen, S., Nelson, D., Pentel, P. R., & Hatsukami, D. K. (1999). Sex and menstrual cycle differences in the subjective effects from smoked cocaine in humans. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7(3), 274–283.PubMedCrossRef

Solowij, N., & Battisti, R. (2008). The chronic effects of cannabis on memory in humans: a review. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 1(1), 81–98.PubMedCrossRef

Solowij, N., & Pesa, N. (2010). Cognitive abnormalities and cannabis use. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 32(Suppl 1), S31–S40.PubMed

Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., Davis, S. M., Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., et al. (2011). Verbal learning and memory in adolescent cannabis users, alcohol users and non-users. Psychopharmacology, 216(1), 131–144.PubMedCrossRef

Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., Davis, S. M., Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., et al. (2012). Reflection impulsivity in adolescent cannabis users: a comparison with alcohol-using and non-substance-using adolescents. Psychopharmacology, 219(2), 575–586.PubMedCrossRef

Steger, R. W., Silverman, A. Y., Siler-Khodr, T. M., & Asch, R. H. (1980). The effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the positive and negative feedback control of luteinizing hormone release. Life Sciences, 27(20), 1911–1916.PubMedCrossRef

Steger, R. W., DePaolo, L., Asch, R. H., & Silverman, A. Y. (1983). Interactions of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) with hypothalamic neurotransmitters controlling luteinizing hormone and prolactin release. Neuroendocrinology, 37(5), 361–370.PubMedCrossRef

Sugarman, D. E., Poling, J., & Sofuoglu, M. (2011). The safety of modafinil in combination with oral 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 98(1), 94–100.PubMedCrossRef

Tait, R. J., Mackinnon, A., & Christensen, H. (2011). Cannabis use and cognitive function: 8-year trajectory in a young adult cohort. Addiction, 106(12), 2195–2203.PubMedCrossRef

Tapert, S. F., Schweinsburg, A. D., Drummond, S. P., Paulus, M. P., Brown, S. A., Yang, T. T., et al. (2007). Functional MRI of inhibitory processing in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology, 194(2), 173–183.PubMedCrossRef

Theunissen, E. L., Kauert, G. F., Toennes, S. W., Moeller, M. R., Sambeth, A., Blanchard, M. M., et al. (2011). Neurophysiological functioning of occasional and heavy cannabis users during THC intoxication. Psychopharmacology, 220(2), 341–350.CrossRef

Tulving, E. (2001). Episodic memory and common sense: how far apart? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 356(1413), 1505–1515.PubMedCrossRef

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes. (2011). World Drug Report, United Nations Publications, Sales No. E.11.XI.10.

Vadhan, N. P., Hart, C. L., van Gorp, W. G., Gunderson, E. W., Haney, M., & Foltin, R. W. (2007). Acute effects of smoked marijuana on decision making, as assessed by a modified gambling task, in experienced marijuana users. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29(4), 357–364.PubMedCrossRef

Vaidya, J. G., Block, R. I., O’Leary, D. S., Ponto, L. B., Ghoneim, M. M., & Bechara, A. (2012). Effects of chronic marijuana use on brain activity during monetary decision-making. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(3), 618–629.PubMedCrossRef

Van Laere, K., Goffin, K., Casteels, C., Dupont, P., Mortelmans, L., de Hoon, J., et al. (2008). Gender-dependent increases with healthy aging of the human cerebral cannabinoid-type 1 receptor binding using [(18)F]MK-9470 PET. NeuroImage, 39(4), 1533–1541.PubMedCrossRef

Viveros, M. P., Llorente, R., Suarez, J., Llorente-Berzal, A., Lopez-Gallardo, M., & Rodriguez de Fonseca, F. (2012). The endocannabinoid system in critical neurodevelopmental periods: sex differences and neuropsychiatric implications. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 26(1), 164–176.PubMedCrossRef

Wadsworth, E. J., Moss, S. C., Simpson, S. A., & Smith, A. P. (2006). Cannabis use, cognitive performance and mood in a sample of workers. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20(1), 14–23.PubMedCrossRef

Wagner, D., Becker, B., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., & Daumann, J. (2010). Interactions between specific parameters of cannabis use and verbal memory. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 34(6), 871–876.CrossRef

Ware, M. A., Adams, H., & Guy, G. W. (2005). The medicinal use of cannabis in the UK: results of a nationwide survey. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 59(3), 291–295.PubMedCrossRef

Watson, S. J., Benson, J. A., Jr., & Joy, J. E. (2000). Marijuana and medicine: assessing the science base: a summary of the 1999 Institute of Medicine report. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(6), 547–552.PubMedCrossRef

Weinstein, A., Brickner, O., Lerman, H., Greemland, M., Bloch, M., Lester, H., et al. (2008a). Brain imaging study of the acute effects of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on attention and motor coordination in regular users of marijuana. Psychopharmacology, 196(1), 119–131.PubMedCrossRef

Weinstein, A., Brickner, O., Lerman, H., Greemland, M., Bloch, M., Lester, H., et al. (2008b). A study investigating the acute dose–response effects of 13 mg and 17 mg Delta 9- tetrahydrocannabinol on cognitive-motor skills, subjective and autonomic measures in regular users of marijuana. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22(4), 441–451.PubMedCrossRef

Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., & Bechara, A. (2010). Do individual differences in Iowa Gambling Task performance predict adaptive decision making for risky gains and losses? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(2), 141–150.PubMedCrossRef

Wenger, T., Fernandez-Ruiz, J. J., & Ramos, J. A. (1999). Immunocytochemical demonstration of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 11(11), 873–878.PubMedCrossRef

Wert, R. C., & Raulin, M. L. (1986). The chronic cerebral effects of cannabis use. II. Psychological findings and conclusions. The International Journal of the Addictions, 21(6), 629–642.PubMed

Wesley, M. J., Hanlon, C. A., & Porrino, L. J. (2011). Poor decision-making by chronic marijuana users is associated with decreased functional responsiveness to negative consequences. Psychiatry Research, 191(1), 51–59.PubMedCrossRef

Winton-Brown, T. T., Allen, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Borgwardt, S. J., Fusar-Poli, P., Crippa, J. A., et al. (2011). Modulation of auditory and visual processing by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol: an FMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36(7), 1340–1348.PubMedCrossRef

Yucel, M., Solowij, N., Respondek, C., Whittle, S., Fornito, A., Pantelis, C., et al. (2008). Regional brain abnormalities associated with long-term heavy cannabis use. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(6), 694–701.PubMedCrossRef

Titel: Effects of Cannabis on Neurocognitive Functioning: Recent Advances, Neurodevelopmental Influences, and Sex Differences
verfasst von: Natania A. Crane
Randi Melissa Schuster
Paolo Fusar-Poli
Raul Gonzalez
Publikationsdatum: 01.06.2013
Verlag: Springer US
Erschienen in: Neuropsychology Review / Ausgabe 2/2013
Print ISSN: 1040-7308
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-6660
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9222-1

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

Niedriger diastolischer Blutdruck erhöht Risiko für schwere kardiovaskuläre Komplikationen

25.04.2024 Hypotonie Nachrichten

Wenn unter einer medikamentösen Hochdrucktherapie der diastolische Blutdruck in den Keller geht, steigt das Risiko für schwere kardiovaskuläre Ereignisse: Darauf deutet eine Sekundäranalyse der SPRINT-Studie hin.

Frühe Alzheimertherapie lohnt sich

25.04.2024 AAN-Jahrestagung 2024 Nachrichten

Ist die Tau-Last noch gering, scheint der Vorteil von Lecanemab besonders groß zu sein. Und beginnen Erkrankte verzögert mit der Behandlung, erreichen sie nicht mehr die kognitive Leistung wie bei einem früheren Start. Darauf deuten neue Analysen der Phase-3-Studie Clarity AD.

Viel Bewegung in der Parkinsonforschung

25.04.2024 Parkinson-Krankheit Nachrichten

Neue arznei- und zellbasierte Ansätze, Frühdiagnose mit Bewegungssensoren, Rückenmarkstimulation gegen Gehblockaden – in der Parkinsonforschung tut sich einiges. Auf dem Deutschen Parkinsonkongress ging es auch viel um technische Innovationen.

Demenzkranke durch Antipsychotika vielfach gefährdet

23.04.2024 Demenz Nachrichten

Wenn Demenzkranke aufgrund von Symptomen wie Agitation oder Aggressivität mit Antipsychotika behandelt werden, sind damit offenbar noch mehr Risiken verbunden als bislang angenommen.

Update Neurologie

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 2/2013

Systematic Review: Are Overweight and Obese Individuals Impaired on Behavioural Tasks of Executive Functioning?

Autobiographical Memory, Self, and Stress-Related Psychiatric Disorders: Which Implications in Cancer Patients?

Is the Right Anterior Temporal Variant of Prosopagnosia a Form of ‘Associative Prosopagnosia’ or a Form of ‘Multimodal Person Recognition Disorder’?