Background
Increasing studies have demonstrated the close relationship between sleep and cancer in recent years.Circadian clocks maintain the homeostasis through temporal regulation of physiology. However, the disruption of sleep rhythms promotes the establishment of cancer features, and the formation of tumors also directly weakens the brain's control of rhythms [
1]. Patients with cancer suffer from long-term sleep rhythm disturbance or poor quality sleep, which can be attributed to factors such as pain, the side effects of chemotherapy, and even depression [
2]. Sleep deprivation has been reported to account for various malignant tumors, including hematological tumors, lung cancer, and breast cancer [
3,
4]. However, the specific relationship between sleep deprivation and the development of colon cancer remains relatively unexplored.
GABA neurons constitute the primary neurons in the wake-sleep circuit [
5]. However, the role of GABA in the wake-up loop needs to be identified. Recent studies have shown that sleep deprivation can increase the brain’s discharge frequency of GABAergic neurons [
6]. GABA-releasing neurons are instrumental in promoting the transition from non-REM and REM sleep to wakefulness [
7]. Zhao et al. reported that the highly activated state of GABAergic neurons in rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) promotes the transition from rapid eye movement (REM) sleep to awakened and non-REM (NREM) sleep [
8]. Another study reported that prolonged waking (sleep deprivation) promotes the expression of GABA
A and GABA
B in the trigeminal neurons, resulting muscle hypotonia or atonia during sleep [
9]. These conclusions indicated that the underlying mechanism by which GABAergic neurons are activated during sleep deprivation. More importantly, apart from the neurotransmitters and secretion functions, GABA regulates tumor proliferation and migration as a signaling molecule in peripheral blood [
10]. Tumor cells can synthesize GABA and promote tumor cell proliferation endogenously by themselves [
11]. Additionally, Zhang et al. reported that GABA originated from B cells could promote macrophage differentiation while inhibiting the anti-tumor functions of CD8 + T cells [
12].
The interaction between primary tumors and local stromal components creates favorable conditions for distant metastasis in the tumor microenvironment (TME) [
13]. Exosomes are nanoparticles secreted by cells that facilitate intercellular communication [
14]. These exosomes can traverse from donor cells to target cells, potentially promoting tumor proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance [
15]. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the primary component within TME. The infiltration of TAMs in solid tumors has been reported to be associated with poor prognosis [
16]. Notably, M2-like macrophages promote cancer’s occurrence and malignant progression by stimulating angiogenesis, increasing tumor cell migration, invasion, and inhibiting anti-tumor immunity [
17]. However, the mechanism of intercommunication between macrophages and colon cancer cells remains unclear, and whether GABA in peripheral blood affects this interaction has not yet to be reported.
MiR-223-3p is an inflammation-related microRNA and regulates numerous essential genes involved in inflammation, cell proliferation, and metastasis [
18]. MiR-223-3p has been confirmed as a critical inflammasome regulator in macrophages and neutrophils [
19]. However, the precise role of miR-223-3p in tumors is still unclear. Studies have reported that miR-223-3p is highly expressed in metastatic gastric cancer [
18], whereas another research has suggested that inhibiting the miR-223-3p promoter enhances drug resistance in colon and breast cancer [
20]. Notably, miR-223-3p ranks as one of the most abundant microRNAs in extracellular vesicles of peripheral blood and plays a role in intercellular communication [
21]. Yang. et al. found that M2-like macrophage-derived exosome miR-223-3p transportation is connected with breast cancer invasion [
22]. However, it has been reported that exosomal miR-223-3p from macrophage targets STMN1 and IGF1-R, inhibiting cell proliferation in hepatoma cells [
23]. Therefore, the exact function of miR-223-3p in tumor cells and immune cells necessitates further investigation.
The MYC family represents human tumors’ most commonly activated oncoprotein [
24]. Studies have shown the role of cMYC in regulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, and chemotherapy resistance in colon cancer [
25,
26]. Due to the instability of cMYC protein, strategies aimed at promoting its degradation are considered to be crucial for targeting cMYC as an anti-tumor method. Williams et al. reported that BVES inhibits polyubiquitination of cMYC through PP2A, enhancing cMYC protein stability and thereby inhibiting colitization-induced tumorigenesis [
27]. Another study reported that MAGI3, as a novel substrate-binding subunit of E3 ligase, can recognize cMYC and regulate its ubiquitination and degradation, thereby regulating colon cancer progression [
28]. Ubiquitination is an essential post-translational modification [
29] and has been investigated in the context of cMYC proteins in various ubiquitination mechanisms in multiple cancers [
30‐
32]. However, whether GABA regulates the ubiquitination of cMYC in colon cancer cells has yet to be studied.
In this study, we investigated the effect of sleep deprivation on the increase of GABA in peripheral blood, which promotes the endogenous pathway of miR-223-3p to regulate the proliferation and migration of colon cancer cells. Additionally, miR-223-3p was found to enter macrophages as exosomes, thereby further promoting tumor progression. Mechanistically, GABA promoted the expression of miR-223-3p in colon cancer cells, and miR-223-3p negatively regulated E3 ligase CBLB. Normally, CBLB can bind to cMYC protein and promote its ubiquitination, thereby reducing the stability of cMYC protein and eventually causing proteasomal degradation. GABA can reduce the post-transcriptional modification of cMYC protein by CBLB through miR-223-3p, which maintain the stability of cMYC protein and promote the proliferation and migration of colon tumors. In addition, tumor-derived exosome miR-223-3p activated the MAPK pathway in macrophages, causing M2 polarization. Consequently, macrophages secrete IL-17 and further promote tumor cell proliferation and migration. In conclusion, our study explored the potential mechanism by which sleep deprivation modulates the colon TME through GABA and uncovers a possible strategy for treating colon cancer progression through modification of sleep.
Methods
Cell culture
The human colon cancer cells(SW480, LoVo), mouse colon cancer cells(MC38), human monocytic cell line(THP1) and 293 T cells were purchased from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, USA). All cells were cultured in DMEM/high glucose(Gibco, USA).To induce differentiation into macrophages, THP-1 cells (1 × 106) were treated with 100 ng/mL PMA(MCE,USA) for 24 h. All cells were cultured in a medium supplemented with 10% foetal bovine serum (Gibco, USA) at 37 °C under 5% CO2.
CRC tissues
The 10 paired of CRC tissues and adjacent noncancerous tissues were collected from Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (Wuhan, China). The consents were obtained from all patients and the use of clinical materials for research purposes were approved by the Ethics Committee of Huazhong University of Science and Technology (Wuhan, China). CRC tissues were taken from the general surgically resected CRC specimens, and the matched adjacent non-cancerous tissues were taken from the site around 5-10 cm away from the edge of the tumors. These specimens were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen until use. All patients were not received preoperative chemoradiotherapy.
Experimental animals
Male BALB/C nu/nu mice (4–6 weeks old) and male C57BL/6 mice (4–6 weeks old) were purchased from Vital River Laboratory Animal Technology Co. Ltd. (Beijing, China). The mice were housed in a specific pathogen-free facility under controlled environmental conditions with a room temperature maintained at 23–25℃. All mice have free access to food and water. The care and handling of the mice were processed following the National Research Council’s animal care guidelines and approved by the Institution Animal Care and Use Committee of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology.
Sleep deprivation mouse model
To establish the sleep deprivation mouse model, male C57BL/6 mice (4–6 week old) were randomly divided into an experimental group (n = 10) and a control group (n = 10). The mice in the experimental group were placed in a sleep deprivation device and maintained under standard environmental conditions of temperature (21 ± 1° C) and relative humidity (50 ± 10%), with a regular 6-h light/2-h dark cycle. The bottom sliding rod rotated while illuminated to hinder mouse sleep. This process lasts for 7 days. The mice in the control group had the same diet as the experimental group, except that they were not subject to daily sleep deprivation.
AOM/DSS-induced mouse colon cancer model
To investigate the effect of GABA on tumorigenesis, a colon cancer model was generated using AOM/DSS. Male C57BL/6 mice(n = 10) were injected intraperitoneally with AOM (10 mg/kg) (MCE, USA). 1 week after injection, 2.5% DSS(MCE, USA) feeding was added to water for 1 week, followed by normal water feeding for 2 weeks. This DSS feeding pattern was repeated three times. One week after the AOM injected, mice were randomly divided into two groups (n = 5), PBS and GABA(50 mg/kg/day). PBS and GABA was intraperitoneally injected twice a week. All mice were sacrificed after 10 weeks and mice colons were harvested to detect polyp development.
Xenograft subcutaneous implantation model
One of the xenograft subcutaneous implantation model was that, after the sleep deprivation mouse model was established, a total of 1 × 106 colon cancer cells were suspended in 200μL PBS and injected into mice subcutaneously. The tumors volume was measured every 5 days. All mice were sacrificed after 20 days.
The other one was that normal mice were randomly divided into different treatment groups(n = 5). A total of 1 × 106 colon cancer cells, transfected with mimic, siRNA, overexpression plasmids or not, were suspended in 200μL PBS and inject into mice subcutaneously. The tumors volume was measured every week. All mice were sacrificed after 4 weeks.
One of the pulmonary metastasis model was that, after the sleep deprivation mouse model was established, approximately 5 × 105 colon cancer cells were injected into the tail vein of mice.
The other one was that normal mice were randomly divided into different treatment groups (n = 5). Approximately 5 × 105 colon cancer cells, transfected with mimic, siRNA, overexpression plasmids or not, were injected into the tail vein of mice.
All mice were sacrificed after 2 months in order to evaluate pulmonary metastasis. Metastases were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for HE staining and IHC.
Co-culture system and conditioned medium preparation
We used a 0.4 μm pore Transwell chamber (Corning, USA) to build a co-culture system. One of the co-culture systems was that 4 × 105 colon cancer cells (SW480, LoVo) were plated in the bottom chamber of 6-well plates, while 4 × 105 macrophages (THP1) were added into the upper Transwell insert. The other way was that 4 × 105 macrophages (THP1) were plated in the bottom chamber of 6-well plates, while 4 × 105 colon cancer cells (SW480, LoVo) were added into the upper Transwell insert. The cells were co-cultured for 48 h and were used for subsequent experiments.
To collect the conditioned medium (CM) of THP1, SW480 and LoVo cells, 4 × 105 cells were plated in 6-well plates and cultured in 1640 or DMEM/high glucose for 48 h. The supernatant was collected and centrifuged it at 2000 × g for 10 min to eliminate the cells and cell debris. All the CMs were used instantly or frozen at − 80 ℃.
RNA isolation and qRT-PCR
Total RNA from cultured cells was extracted using Trizol(Japanese TaKaRa) reagent for 5 min at room temperature, then centrifuged at 3000 × g for 15 min at 4℃ to obtain the supernatant. The supernatant was then added to isopropanol and mixed well, then centrifuged at 3000 × g for 10 min at 4℃ to discard the supernatant. The pellet was washed with absolute ethanol and then added to diethylpyrocarbonate in water to measure RNA concentration (ng/μL). The cDNA was then reverse-transcribed by RT Master Mix (TaKaRa, Japan). RT-PCR was performed using SYBR master mix (TaKaRa, Japan) on the Applied Biosystems StepOne-Plus System (American ABI). The expression levels of cellular RNA and mRNA expression were normalized against the housekeeping gene GAPDH. U6 served as a control for miRNA. The primer sequences are listed in Supplementary Table
3.
Western blotting
Lysing cells and tissues with RIPA buffers containing PMSF(American Sigma) and phosphorylase inhibitors(American Sigma). First, protein specimens were separated by SDS-PAGE. Then, the target protein were transferred to the PVDF membrane (Millipore USA). Then, we incubated the PVDF membrane with the corresponding primary antibody (Table S4) overnight at 4℃. This was followed by incubation with secondary antibody(CST, USA) for 1-h the subsequent day. The protein bands were visualized using ECL (Pierce, USA) and collected by the ChemiDocTm XRS Molecular Imager System (Bio-Rad, USA). Finally, the band densities were analyzed by Image J software. (The details are listed in Supplementary Table
4).
Transfection assay
HA-tagged CBLB(amino acids 1–982) and its truncations, including CBLB A(amino acids 1–343), CBLB B(amino acids 344–930) and CBLB C(amino acids 931–982),were subcloned into pcDNA 3.1-HA vector. Flag-tagged cMYC(amino acids 1–454) and its truncations, including cMYC A(amino acids 1–368), cMYC B(amino acids 369–421) and cMYC C(amino acids 422–454), were subcloned into pcDNA 3.1-Flag vector.(GeneChem, China). Lipofectamine 3000(Thermo Fisher Scientific, US) was used to transfect plasmids into serum-free Opti-MEM(Gibco).
All the overexpression plasmids targeting cMYC(pcDNA3.1-cMYC) and CBLB (pcDNA3.1-CBLB) were designed and synthesized by GeneChem (China), and the empty plasmid was used as a negative control. MiR-223-3p mimics, miR-223-3p inhibitors and matched control(mimic-NC or inhibitor-NC) were synthesized by RiboBio(Guangzhou, China). All the small interference RNAs were transfected at a final concentration of 50 nM, and the plasmid was transfected at a final concentration of 1.6 μg for 12 well plates. Lipofectamine 3000 transfection reagent (Thermo Fisher Scientific,US) was used for cell transfections according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
A lentiviral vector GV248 containing cMYC shRNA, CBLB shRNA and corresponding negative control were purchased from GeneChem (China). Colon cancer cells were transfected with a lentiviral vector containing cMYC shRNA and CBLB shRNA to establish stable cell lines with downregulated cMYC and CBLB expression. To select stable cell lines, lentiviral-transfected cells were cultured in medium with 1 μg/ml puromycin for 10 days.
Protein and total RNA were extracted after 48 h. (The details are listed in Supplementary Table
5).
Exosome isolation and treatment
Cells were cultured in medium with exosome-free serum to remove the interference of serum exosomes. Briefly, the serum was centrifuged at 100,000 × g for more than 16 h, and filtered with a 0.22 μm filter (Millipore, USA). The medium was collected after 24–72 h, and the exosomes were isolated according to the instructions on the kit (Invitrogen, California, USA). The medium was centrifuged at 2000 × g for 30 min to eliminate the cells and debris. The total exosome isolation reagent was added to it and incubated between 2 ℃ to 8 ℃ overnight. The exosomes were centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 1 h and resuspended in PBS. qNano and electron microscope were used to quantify the size and concentration of the exosomes and to visualize the morphology of the exosomes. Finally, the exosomes were labeled with PKH26 and were extracted again in the reagent. Exosomes were isolated from 4 × 105 colon cancer cells. THP1 cells were plated on 12-well plates the day before treatment. 100 μg exosomes were added to the plates when THP1 cells were treated by PMA for 24 h. The cells were collected after 48 h for the subsequent experiments.
MiRNA of exosomes sequencing
After colon cancer cell was treated by GABA, the supernatant of colon cancer cells were collected. Control group was treated by PBS. Then, the exosomes of supernatant were isolated according to the instructions on the kit (Invitrogen, California, USA). Then, we performed miRNA transcriptome profiling by RNA sequencing. Total RNA extraction, RNA sequencing and bioinformatics data analysis were performed by Qijing Biological Technology Co., Ltd(WuHan, China). The small RNA sequencing library adopts the PE150 sequencing scheme and evaluates the quality value of the sequencing library using fastqc. Use bowtie short sequence alignment tool to compare the Rfam library and remove ncRNAs such as rRNA and tRNA. Use miRDeep2 for quantitative analysis of small RNAs, and use DESeq2 for differential expression analysis.
For analysis of public datasets, RNA-seq-based gene expression data in colon cancer were obtained from the GEO database (GSE74602). For gene expression, P < 0.05 was used as the cutoff.
Coimmunoprecipitation(co-IP)
After transfection, the cells were lysed in RIPA buffer at 4 °C for 1 h. Lysates were centrifuged at 15,000 × g for 15 min at 4 °C, and a sample from the supernatant was collected for further analysis as total lysate. To remove unspecific binding, a prewashing with 0.7 μg/μl IgG-free BSA and 30–50 μl of Protein A/G PLUS agarose was done. Anti-cMYC (6 μg, proteintech) was added to cell lysates and incubated overnight after the addition of Protein A/G PLUS agarose and incubation for 8 h at 4℃. When necessary, a second round of immunoprecipitation was performed. The beads were washed 5 times with 1 ml of immunoprecipitation buffer and then subjected to Western blot analysis.
CCK-8 assay
Te CCK-8 kit was used to assess cell viability in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. In brief, cells (3 × 103 per well) were seeded into 96-well plates (200 μl/well) in culture medium supplemented with 10% FBS with six replicates for each sample. At the appointed time point, 100 μl of fresh medium and 10 μl of CCK-8 solution were added to each well. After incubation for 1 h at 37 ℃, the absorbance was recorded at 450 nm using a Quant ELISA Reader.
Transwell migration assays
5 × 104 cells in medium without FBS were plated in an 8 μm pore Transwell chamber (BD, USA) for the migration assays. And we placed culture medium supplemented with 10% FBS in the lower chambers. Then, the cells were gently wiped away on the top of the filters after incubation for 24 h for the migration assays. The cells were fixed on the membranes with 5% paraformaldehyde for 20 min followed by staining for 15 min with 0.1% crystal violet. Lastly, five fields of vision were chosen and the number of cells were calculated under the microscope.
SW480 and LoVo cells were cultured in 6-well plates with 500 cells per well and allowed to grow for 14 days in the recommended growth medium. The old medium was replaced with fresh medium every 3 days. Then, the clones were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 20 min and stained with 0.1% crystal violet 15 min. Finally, every wells were chosen and the total number of colonies were counted to evaluate the results.
Wound healing assays
5 × 105 cells were plated in 6-well plates overnight. 1 mL pipette tips were used to scratch a straight line when the cells achieved 60–80% confluence. Then cells were cultured with medium without FBS. Then, a picture of the cell wound width was taken under the microscope at 0 and 48 h.
Immunohistochemistry (IHC)
Tissues were formalin-fixed, dehydrated and paraffin-embedded. Then, the tissue sections were incubated with primary antibodies overnight at 4 ℃. Next day, the tissue sections were incubated with HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies for 1 h at 37℃. Then sections were further washed with PBS and distilled water, freshly prepared DAB solution (diaminobenzidine) was subsequently used until the tissue sections were ready to observe. On the one hand, we evaluated the intensity of tissue staining. We calculated the percentage of positive tissue staining (graded as 0, < 5%; 1, 5–25%; 2, 26–50%; 3, 51–75%; and 4, > 75%). SI score was equal to the product of those two. Two experienced pathologists evaluated all the results from the IHC analysis of the tissue sections.(The details are listed in Supplementary Table
4).
Immunofluorescence (IF)
Colon cancer cells and PMA-pretreated THP1 cells were placed on a glass slide and fixed with 5% paraformaldehyde when the cells reached 60–70% confluence. Blocked the cells with 5% donkey serum for 1 h and incubated with the primary antibody overnight at 4 ℃. The antibodies used for the IF assay were listed in Supplementary Table S
4. The next day, the cells were incubated with the corresponding CY3 secondary antibody (Jackson Immunology Research, Erie, UK) at 37℃for 1 h. After counterstaining the nuclei with DAPI (Sigma, St. Louis, Missouri, USA) for 15 min, the fluorescence images were captured by epifluorescence microscopy (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan).(The details are listed in Supplementary Table
4).
Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)
ChIP assay was performed using the SimpleChIP® Plus Enzymatic Chromatin IP Kit (CST, USA). Crosslinked the cells with formaldehyde and sonicate to an average size of 300–500 bp. The lysate was added to the EP tube and incubated with the cMYC antibody. Purified cross-linked DNA released from protein-DNA complexes and further evaluated eluted DNA by qRT-PCR. Used both input and IgG to confirm that the detected signal comes from a specific binding between chromatin and MYC. Used JASPAR to predict the binding site between cMYC and the miR-223-3p promoter. All ChIP assays were repeated 3 times independently.
Dual luciferase reporter assay for miRNA binding to 3’UTR
To confirm whether CBLB was a target of miR-223-3p,1 × 105 293 T cells were seeded on 96-well plates and contransfected with dual luciferase reporter plasmid containing CBLB 3’UTR and mutated forms with or without 50 nM miR-223-3p mimic or mimic-NC.After incubation for 48 h,cells were lysed with diluted Passive Lysis Buffer.Luciferase Assay Buffer II was added and used to measure firefly luciferase activity.After stopping the reaction with 1XStop&Glo®Reagent,we measured the Renilla luciferase activity.Activity per well = firefly luciferase activity/Renilla luciferase activity.
ELISA
After treatment, blood samples were prepared from C57BL/6 mice. Expressions of Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), Norepinephrine (NE), Epinephrine (EPI) and Serotonin(5-HT) in blood were assessed using commercially available ELISA kits (Enzyme-linked Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Shanghai).
Statistical analysis
All data were analyzed by GraphPad Prism5.0 and all assays were repeated at least three times. We used t-test to analyze the frequency of Macrophages in colon cancer tissues and paired adjacent normal tissues. We used the chi-square test to identify the correlation between miR-223-3p and cMYC, CBLB, p-38 and p-ERK in the colon cancer specimens. χ2 test was used to analyze the relationship between Macrophages frequency and the clinical features of colon cancer. P < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant and all tests were two-sided.
Discussion
Sleep is mandatory for maintaining and prolonging human health, and excessive evidence highlights the importance of sleep deprivation in the occurrence and development of tumors. Indeed, individuals with tumors often experience sleep disorder due to factors such as tumor burden, treatment plans, psychological stressors, and more [
42]. The secretion of IL-1β by tumor cells emerges as a contributing factor to the disruption of REM sleep and subsequent sleep deprivation by affecting the levels of various sleep-related neurotransmitters, including prostaglandins, nitric oxide, GABA, and others [
42]. These establish a self-perpetuating cycle between sleep disorder and tumor circuit, undoubtedly.
For example, Jeremy, et al. reported that non-metastatic breast cancer in mice led to sleep disruption and fragmentation through hypothalamic secretory/orexin (HO) activation, promoting liver glucose processing induced by the tumor [
43]. Another study found intermittent sleep accelerated tumor growth and invasion by recruiting TAMs and activating the TLR4 signaling pathway [
44]. In our study, the data demonstrated that sleep disorder promoted the growth and migration of colon cancer while noting increased recruitment of macrophages in the lung metastasis tissues of sleep-deprivated mice.
The transition between wakefulness and sleep depends on hypothalamic and brainstem regulation [
42]. Neurons are sensitive to changes in peripheral signals such as leptin, cytokines, glucose, amino acids, and pH and regulate the circadian rhythm through the hypothalamus, pituitary-adrenal axis, and sympathetic nervous system [
3]. The specific inputs from cholinergic, GABAergic, and 5-HT neurons indicate that these neurons play an important role in endocrine, arousal, and metabolic functions [
45‐
47]. GABA is a non-protein amino acid with high concentrations in different brain regions [
48]. It has been reported that sleep-related neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area contain inhibitory neurotransmitters GABA and alanine and dominate other components of the ascending wake-up system [
49].
Our data concluded that sleep inhibition triggers active GABA synthesis in brain tissue, elevates GABA-specific transporter expression, and significantly increases GABA content in peripheral blood. It is known that GABA regulates tumor proliferation and migration as a tumor signal molecule [
10]. Our study found that sleep deprivation facilitate the proliferation and migration of colon cancer cells by secreting substantial GABA into the peripheral blood.
CMYC is one of human tumors’ most frequently activated oncoproteins [
24]. In recent years, studies have shown that abnormal activation of cMYC determines the pathology and phenotype of tumors and promotes tumor cell immune escape [
50]. It has been reported that the inactivation of cMYC can lead to the continuous regression of tumors in clinical models [
24]. Therefore, ubiquitination regulation is a crucial anti-tumor approach targeting cMYC. Wang et al. reported that the E3-linked enzyme MAGI3 can regulate ubiquitination degradation of cMYC protein in colon cancer cells, restraining cell growth and enhancing apoptosis [
28]. Another study revealed that LncRNA GLCC1 inhibited the ubiquitination of cMYC, stabilizing its protein and promoting the development of colon cancer and tumor metabolism [
51]. We found that GABA can increase the stability of the cMYC protein in colon cancer cells, promoting tumor cell proliferation and migration by inhibiting the ubiquitination degradation of cMYC.
In our previous experiments, GABA-induced lung metastasis of colon cancer cells was more pronounced, and more recruitment of associated macrophages were observed in the lung metastasis tissues. Exosomes are the main components of extracellular vesicles (EV), and their diameters range from 30 to 150 nm [
14]. Recent studies have claimed that exosomes can transfer DNA, RNA, or proteins within TME to facilitate communication between tumor cells and promote tumor metastasis [
52,
53].
MicroRNAs are non-coding RNA of about 20-25nt in length, abundant in exosomes, and play a vital role in intercellular communication [
54,
55]. Zhao. Et al. reported that colon cancer-derived exosome miR-934 activates the PI3K/AKT pathway to induce macrophage M2 polarization and promote liver metastasis of colon cancer through CXCL13 and other cytokines [
56]. He et al. found that in ovarian cancer, highly expressed miR-205 is transported via exosomes, promoting angiogenesis and distant metastasis through the PTEN/AKT pathway [
57]. However, the mechanism of exosomes in the mediating communication between colon cancer cells and TAMs remains unclear, and whether GABA affects the aforementioned intercellular communication is still unknown. Our data suggests that GABA alone has minimal influence on macrophage polarization, but GABA-induced colon cancer cells significantly promote M2 polarization of macrophages during co-culture.
MiR-223-3p regulates tumorigenesis through direct control over tumor cells and indirect regulation via the tumor microenvironment. For example, miR-223 directly targets SEPT6 to inhibit cell apoptosis, promoting migration and invasion in prostate cancer [
40]. In addition, HPV infection promotes cervical cancer progression by upregulating the miR-223 expression in cervical tissue, thereby reducing cell adhesion. Recent studies have outlined the endogenous expression of miR-223-3p and its transfer to surrounding target cells through exosomes or extracapsular vesicles, facilitating its biological functions [
58]. Zhu et al. confirmed that macrophages transport miR-223 to epithelial ovarian cancer cells via exosomes, promoting the chemotherapy resistance of tumors [
59]. Similarly, neutrophils transport miR-223 to lung cancer cells through extracellular vesicles, activating epithelial-mesenchymal transition [
60].
Our data indicates that sleep deprivation upregulates the level of GABA in peripheral blood. Furthermore, the result of miRNA sequencing suggests that GABA promotes the expression of miR-223-3p in colon cancer cells. Interestingly, Marçola M, et al. reported that there is a significant difference in the expression of some miRNAs in primary cells extracted during the day and night. Among them, miR-223-3p is highly expressed in nighttime cells [
61]. This result suggests that miR-223-3p may be regulated by the diurnal rhythm and play an important role in the process of sleep deprivation promoting colon cancer. Additionally, we found that miR-223-3p can induce M2 polarization of macrophages via the exosome pathway. In turn, macrophages overexpressing miR-223-3p promote colon cancer cell proliferation and migration by secreting IL-17.
MiRNAs usually perform their functions by binding to the 3 'UTR region of the target gene [
62]. Our previous study demonstrated that GABA inhibits the ubiquitination of cMYC and promotes colon cancer cell proliferation and migration. Studies have shown that miR-223-3p can regulate protein ubiquitination by regulating E3 ligase expression. Wang et al. reported that FBX8, as the target gene of miR-223-3p, promotes colon cancer proliferation and invasion by mediating the ubiquitination of mTOR [
63]. In acute lymphoblastic leukemia, miR-223-3p mediated by the Notch pathway inhibits the E3 ligase FBXW7 expression [
64]. Our study found that overexpressing miR-223-3p in colon cancer cells also inhibits the ubiquitination degradation of cMYC, mirroring the effect observed with GABA. Additionally, miR-223-3p overexpression enhanced colon cancer cell proliferation and migration, thus further mediating miR-223-3p in regulating GABA on cMYC protein and promoting colon cancer metastasis.
CBLB is a ring finger type E3 ligase member that mediates various signal proteins' ubiquitination [
65]. It has been reported that CBLB combined and ubiquitinates the inflammasome NLRP3, leading to its proteasome degradation and migrating endotoxemia [
66]. Similarly, Hong et al. reported that CBLB mediates the lysosomal degradation of activated EGFR through k63-linked ubiquitination in lung adenocarcinoma [
67]. However, studies have suggested that the higher CBLB expression is related to the development of several malignant tumors, such as breast cancer [
68], melanoma [
69], head and neck cancer [
70], and more. Furthermore, studies have confirmed that CBLB knockout or deletion can promote the immune activation of CD8 + T cells [
71] and enhance the cytotoxicity of NK cells in cancer immunotherapy [
72].
However, the role of CBLB in colon cancer remains unclear. This study uncovered that the CBLB expression in colon cancer tissues is low and negatively correlated with their proliferation and migration. Additionally, we found that miR-223-3p downregulates the CBLB expression in colon cancer cells, inhibiting the ubiquitination degradation of cMYC protein via CBLB binding. Our data suggests that GABA induces miR-223-3p overexpression, thereby enhancing the stability of cMYC protein in colon cancer cells by downregulating CBLB expression. Moreover, chip assay and DNA gel analysis showed that cMYC, functioning as a transcription factor, binds to the miR-223-3p promoter, promoting its transcription in colon cancer cells.
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