Introduction
Methods
Data source and study population
Defining outcomes and covariates
Statistical analyses
Results
Characteristics of children | Neither parent migrated | Father migrated only | Mother with/without father migrated |
---|---|---|---|
n = 3708 |
n = 1640 |
n = 788 | |
n (%) |
n (%) |
n (%) | |
Age of child, months | |||
0–5 | 424 (11.4) | 192 (11.7) | 15 (1.9) |
6–11 | 913 (24.6) | 492 (30.0) | 111 (14.1) |
12–23 | 1408 (38.0) | 609 (37.1) | 345 (43.8) |
24–35 | 963 (26.0) | 347 (21.2)a
| 317 (40.2)a
|
Child’s gender, male | 2015 (54.3) | 864 (52.7) | 427 (54.2) |
Han ethnicity | 1766 (47.6) | 994 (60.6)a
| 569 (72.2)a
|
Number of household electrical appliances | |||
0–2 | 991 (26.7) | 451 (27.5) | 212 (26.9) |
3 | 1282 (34.6) | 636 (38.8) | 278 (35.3) |
4 | 1435 (38.7) | 553 (33.7)b
| 298 (37.8) |
Child having elder sibling(s) | 1786 (48.2) | 820 (50.0) | 237 (30.1)a
|
Guardian’s education attainmentc
| |||
Illiteracy | 627 (16.9) | 328 (20.0) | 345 (43.8) |
Primary education | 886 (23.9) | 433 (26.4) | 263 (33.4) |
Junior high school | 1,710 (46.1) | 752 (45.9) | 142 (18.0) |
Senior high school and above | 484 (13.1) | 126 (7.7)a
| 38 (4.8)a
|
Stunting, height-for-age Z score <-2 standard deviation | 609 (16.4) | 247 (15.1) | 132 (16.6) |
Ever breastfedd
| 3489 (94.1) | 1554 (94.8) | 593 (75.3)a
|
Length of breastfeeding, months | 9.8 (6.2)e
| 9.7 (5.9)e
| 7.2 (6.3)e, a
|
Early initiation of breastfeedingd
| 1,574 (42.5) | 644 (39.3)b
| 263 (33.4)a
|
Age-appropriate breastfeedingf
| 1,014 (36.9) | 514 (39.8)b
| 14 (3.0)a
|
Child complementary feedingg
| |||
Minimum dietary diversity | 2266 (69.0) | 912 (63.0)a
| 543 (70.3) |
Minimum meal frequency | 1665 (50.7) | 666 (46.0)b
| 257 (33.3)a
|
Minimum acceptable diet | 973 (29.6) | 377 (26.0)b
| 124 (16.0)a
|
Intake of iron-rich/fortified foods | 2224 (67.7) | 838 (57.9)a
| 492 (63.7)b
|
Milk feeding | 2081 (56.1) | 872 (53.2)a
| 574 (72.8)a
|
Characteristics of children | Father migrated only | Mother with/without father migrated | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
n = 1640 |
n = 788 | |||
aOR | 95 % CI | aOR | 95 % CI | |
Stunting, height-for-age Z score <-2 standard deviation | 0.93 | 0.75 to 1.15 | 0.78 | 0.65 to 0.95 |
Ever breastfed | 0.99 | 0.56 to 1.75 | 0.30 | 0.17 to 0.52 |
Length of breastfeeding, months (β coefficient and 95 % CI) | 0.02 | –0.65 to 0.68 | −3.77 | −5.01 to −2.53 |
Early initiation of breastfeeding | 0.83 | 0.60 to 1.14 | 0.83 | 0.54 to 1.27 |
Age-appropriate breastfeedinga
| 1.04 | 0.81 to 1.32 | 0.04 | 0.02 to 0.10 |
Child complementary feedingb
| ||||
Minimum dietary diversity | 0.82 | 0.66 to 1.03 | 1.00 | 0.71 to 1.40 |
Minimum meal frequency | 0.97 | 0.75 to 1.25 | 0.44 | 0.29 to 0.68 |
Minimum acceptable diet | 0.98 | 0.81 to 1.19 | 0.56 | 0.39 to 0.79 |
Intake of iron-rich/fortified foods | 0.74 | 0.63 to 0.88 | 0.94 | 0.67 to 1.33 |
Milk feeding | 0.94 | 0.72 to 1.23 | 1.87 | 1.30 to 2.70 |
Characteristics of children | Mother | Father | Grandparent |
---|---|---|---|
n = 4437 |
n = 316 |
n = 1290 | |
n (%) |
n (%) |
n (%) | |
Age of child, months | |||
0–5 | 551 (12.4) | 24 (7.6) | 52 (4.0) |
6–11 | 1233 (27.8) | 38 (12.0) | 234 (18.1) |
12–23 | 1620 (36.5) | 141 (44.6) | 557 (43.2) |
24–35 | 1033 (23.3) | 113 (35.8)a
| 447 (34.7)a
|
Child’s gender, male | 2388 (53.8) | 181 (57.3) | 687 (53.3) |
Han ethnicity | 2376 (53.6) | 163 (51.6) | 749 (58.1)b
|
Number of household electrical appliances | |||
0–2 | 1124 (25.3) | 119 (37.7) | 377 (29.2) |
3 | 1602 (36.1) | 104 (32.9) | 463 (35.9) |
4 | 1711 (38.6) | 93 (29.4)a
| 450 (34.9)b
|
Child having elder sibling(s) | 2181 (49.2) | 174 (55.1)b
| 448 (34.7)a
|
Guardian’s education attainmentc
| |||
Illiteracy | 557 (12.6) | 41 (13.0) | 679 (52.6) |
Primary education | 1082 (24.4) | 71 (22.5) | 410 (31.8) |
Junior high school | 2254 (50.8) | 151 (47.8) | 162 (12.6) |
Senior high school and above | 543 (12.2) | 53 (16.8) | 38 (3.0)a
|
Stunting, height-for-age Z score <-2 standard deviation | 661 (14.9) | 69 (21.8)b
| 237 (18.4)b
|
Ever breastfedd
| 4303 (97.0) | 276 (87.3)a
| 999 (77.4)a
|
Length of breastfeeding, months | 10.2 (5.9)e
| 9.4 (6.6)e, b
| 7.1 (6.2)e, a
|
Early initiation of breastfeedingd
| 1909 (43.0) | 122 (38.6)a
| 418 (32.4)a
|
Age-appropriate breastfeedingf
| 1387 (40.8) | 44 (21.7)a
| 103 (12.2)a
|
Child complementary feeding | |||
Minimum dietary diversity | 2630 (67.7) | 206 (70.6) | 829 (67.0) |
Minimum meal frequency | 1788 (46.0) | 177 (60.6)a
| 573 (46.3) |
Minimum acceptable diet | 1085 (27.9) | 93 (31.9) | 271 (21.9)a
|
Intake of iron-rich/fortified foods | 2533 (65.2) | 195 (66.8) | 768 (62.0)b
|
Milk feeding | 2364 (53.3) | 184 (58.2) | 918 (71.2)a
|
Characteristics of children | Father | Grandparent | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
n = 316 |
n = 1290 | |||
aOR | 95 % CI | aOR | 95 % CI | |
Stunting, height-for-age Z score < -2 standard deviation | 1.26 | 1.00 to 1.58 | 0.88 | 0.69 to 1.13 |
Ever breastfed | 0.68 | 0.38 to 1.21 | 0.29 | 0.17 to 0.50 |
Length of breastfeeding, months (β coefficient and 95 % CI) | −1.63 | −2.61 to −0.65 | −4.23 | −4.98 to −3.47 |
Early initiation of breastfeeding | 1.06 | 0.86 to 1.31 | 0.76 | 0.52 to 1.12 |
Age-appropriate breastfeedinga
| 0.51 | 0.40 to 0.64 | 0.16 | 0.09 to 0.28 |
Child complementary feedingb
| ||||
Minimum dietary diversity | 0.93 | 0.66 to 1.30 | 1.17 | 0.91 to 1.51 |
Minimum meal frequency | 0.97 | 0.68 to 1.39 | 0.63 | 0.41 to 0.95 |
Minimum acceptable diet | 0.74 | 0.58 to 0.94 | 0.69 | 0.51 to 0.93 |
Intake of iron-rich/fortified foods | 0.87 | 0.68 to 1.12 | 1.09 | 0.85 to 1.40 |
Milk feeding | 1.21 | 0.90 to 1.62 | 2.44 | 1.90 to 3.13 |
Crude OR | 95 % CI | Adjusted ORa
| 95 % CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Children left behind | ||||
Neither parent migrated | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Father migrated only | 0.90 | 0.67 to 1.21 | 0.94 | 0.77 to 1.16 |
Mother with/without father migrated | 1.02 | 0.83 to 1.27 | 0.79 | 0.61 to 1.03 |
Primary guardian | ||||
Mother | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Father | 1.60 | 1.26 to 2.01 | 1.32 | 1.04 to 1.67 |
Grandparent | 1.29 | 1.00 to 1.66 | 1.05 | 0.79 to 1.39 |
Other relative | 1.67 | 0.96 to 2.88 | 1.36 | 0.74 to 2.52 |
Age of child, months | ||||
0–5 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
6–11 | 0.85 | 0.54 to 1.33 | 1.08 | 0.68 to 1.72 |
12–23 | 1.95 | 1.28 to 2.97 | 2.10 | 1.35 to 3.26 |
24–35 | 2.56 | 1.64 to 4.02 | 2.67 | 1.71 to 4.18 |
Gender of child, male | 1.33 | 1.19 to 1.49 | 1.36 | 1.19 to 1.56 |
Han ethnicity | 0.61 | 0.46 to 0.81 | 0.80 | 0.65 to 0.99 |
Number of household electrical appliances | ||||
0–2 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
3 | 0.55 | 0.42 to 0.73 | 0.71 | 0.55 to 0.91 |
4 | 0.32 | 0.23 to 0.46 | 0.46 | 0.32 to 0.66 |
Child having elder sibling(s) | 1.16 | 1.03 to 1.31 | 0.94 | 0.80 to 1.12 |
Guardian’s education level | ||||
Illiteracy | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Primary education | 0.71 | 0.57 to 0.87 | 0.83 | 0.68 to 1.03 |
Junior high school | 0.45 | 0.33 to 0.60 | 0.63 | 0.44 to 0.89 |
Senior high school and above | 0.37 | 0.28 to 0.49 | 0.56 | 0.40 to 0.78 |
Length of breastfeeding, months | ||||
0–5 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
6–11 | 0.77 | 0.55 to 1.07 | 0.85 | 0.68 to 1.07 |
12–35 | 1.55 | 1.09 to 2.22 | 1.12 | 0.88 to 1.42 |
Milk feeding | 0.72 | 0.56 to 0.94 | 0.78 | 0.62 to 0.98 |