Introduction
Current definitions of disease activity
MS diagnosis
Disease activity in clinical guidelines
Early disability accrual in MS
Impaired cognition
Assessment | Details | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Recommended as the best rapid assessment tool for cognitive processing speed in adults in clinical practice Recommended as a cognitive measure in clinical trials No neuropsychological training required to administer test Takes around 5 min to complete | A screening tool that does not provide information about all cognitive domains | |
Digital adaption of SDMT Self-administered iPad-based tool for routine use in MS clinic Capable of seamless integration with medical records Takes around 5 min to complete | A screening tool that does not provide information about all cognitive domains | |
Includes three tests: SDMT California Verbal Learning Test–Second Edition Brief Visuospatial Memory Test–Revised Widely validated across numerous languages and cultures Can be administered in 15–20 min by health personnel without specific training | Upper limb functionality can affect its outcomes | |
Includes seven tests: SDMT Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test California Verbal Learning Test–Second Edition Brief Visuospatial Memory Test–Revised Controlled Oral Word Association Test Judgement of Line Orientation Test Delias–Kaplan Executive Function System Scoring Test Evaluates all cognitive functions affected by MS | Takes around 90 min to complete Requires clinical neuropsychology training to administer | |
Includes five tests: Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test SDMT Selective reminding test 10/36 Spatial recall test Oral Work association test High sensitivity and specificity | Takes around 45 min to complete Requires clinical neuropsychology training to administer and interpret data Some cognitive functions are poorly evaluated or excluded |
Neuropsychiatric symptoms
Biomarkers as indicators of “silent” disease
Molecular markers: focus on immunoglobulins
Molecular markers: focus on NfL
Study | Design | Patients | Outcomes | Conclusions |
---|---|---|---|---|
NfL | ||||
Salzer et al. (2010) [85] | Observational retrospective study | RRMS (N = 95) | There was correlation between CSF NfL levels and both MS severity scores and conversion to SPMS | NfL levels could be prognostic markers in early RRMS |
Chitnis et al. (2018) [77] | Observational retrospective study | RRMS (N = 122) | Serum NfL levels were associated with 10-year MRI measures of disease worsening (T2 lesion volume and BPF) | NfL levels could be prognostic of later MRI outcomes |
Bjornevik et al. (2020) [20] | Nested case − control study | MS (N = 30) | Serum NfL levels increased a median of 6 years before clinical symptoms appeared | Neurodegeneration was already occurring before MS clinical onset |
Gaetani et al. (2019) [79] | Observational retrospective study | CIS or possible MS (N = 32) | CSF NfL levels were elevated at first demyelinating event before MS disease activity | CSF NfL levels are prognostic markers for very early MS A CSF NfL level cutoff of 500 pg/mL could identify patients with subsequent disease activity |
Cai et al. (2018) [73] | Meta-analysis of 15 studies | Overall: 795 with CSF samples, 1856 with blood samples | Significantly higher CSF and blood NfL levels with MS vs. controls | NfL levels could be prognostic biomarkers to monitor disease activity |
Bhan et al. (2021) [80] | Observational prospective study | Newly diagnosed MS (N = 42) | Higher CSF NfL level predicted a higher rate of atrophy and EDSS score worsening over a 10-year period | CSF NfL levels can provide indication of future disease burden up to 10 years in advance |
Srpova et al. (2021) [81] | Observational prospective study | Early MS (N = 172) | Strong association between serum NfL levels and lesion accumulation over time; NfL levels reflected delayed BVL | NfL levels have a strong association with development of future brain atrophy |
Benkert et al. (2022) [82] | Retrospective modeling and validation study | MS (N = 1313) | Serum NfL levels were associated with clinical and MRI measures of disease worsening; NfL levels were reduced with HET | NfL levels can be prognostic biomarkers for monitoring treatment efficacy in individual patients |
Ziemssen et al. (2022) [83] | Analysis from pooled phase 3 trials | Patients with RMS, including newly diagnosed and treatment-naïve patients (N = 1746) | High baseline serum NfL was prognostic of accumulation of MRI lesions, higher change in WM volume, and whole brain atrophy vs. low baseline serum NfL | NfL levels are prognostic indicators of tissue damage, and potential predictors of higher probability of clinical progression |
GFAP | ||||
Momtazmanesh et al. (2021) [35] | Systematic review/meta-analysis | MS (N = 4071) | GFAP levels were elevated with MS vs. controls, and with PMS vs. RRMS | GFAP levels may have utility in differentiating RRMS and PMS |
Martínez et al. (2015) [32] | Prospective observational study | MS (N = 301) | High GFAP levels were independently associated with earlier progression of EDSS score | High GFAP levels are associated with earlier disability progression |
Saraste et al. (2021) [88] | Observational study | RRMS (N = 39), SPMS (N = 29) | GFAP levels were elevated in patients with MS vs. controls; high GFAP levels were correlated with T2 lesion volume, microstructural changes in brain WM, worse EDSS scores, and longer disease duration | GFAP levels could be biomarkers for MS-associated astrocytopathy and WM damage |
Abdelhak et al. (2018) [151] | Prospective observational study | RRMS (N = 42), PMS (N = 38) | GFAP levels were correlated with EDSS score in patients with PMS; GFAP levels were correlated with NfL levels | GFAP levels could be disease severity markers |
Molecular markers: focus on glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)
Other molecular markers
MRI-based biomarkers in early MS
Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs)
Clinical guidelines on the use of disease-modifying therapies
Early initiation of HET
Study | Design | Patients | HETs | Comparators | Outcomes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Early HET vs. early MET (with/without escalation) | |||||
Labiano-Fontcuberta et al. (2022) [118] | Prospective longitudinal study | MS (N = 695) | Alemtuzumab, cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone, natalizumab, ocrelizumab, ofatumumab, rituximab | Cladribine, dimethyl fumarate, fingolimod, glatiramer acetate, interferons, teriflunomide | Delay in starting HET was associated with cognitive worsening. MET was associated with higher risk of cognitive worsening vs. early HET |
He et al. (2020) [119] | Observational cohort study | RRMS (N = 544) | Alemtuzumab, mitoxantrone, natalizumab, ocrelizumab, rituximab | Cladribine, dimethyl fumarate, fingolimod, glatiramer acetate, interferon beta, teriflunomide | Early HET (< 2 years after disease onset) was associated with lower long-term disability and lower hazard of disability progression vs. late HET (4–6 years after disease onset) |
Simonsen et al. (2021) [10] | Real-world cohort study | MS (N = 694) | Alemtuzumab, fingolimod, natalizumab | Dimethyl fumarate, glatiramer acetate, interferons, teriflunomide | Patients starting HET were more likely to achieve NEDA at 1 and 2 years vs. patients starting MET |
Harding et al. (2019) [120] | Real-world cohort study | MS (N = 592) | Alemtuzumab, natalizumab | Dimethyl fumarate, fingolimod, glatiramer acetate, interferons, teriflunomide | Mean change in EDSS score at 5 years was lower with HET vs. MET |
Buron et al. (2020) [121] | Observational cohort study | RRMS (N = 388) | Alemtuzumab, cladribine, daclizumab, fingolimod, natalizumab, ocrelizumab | Dimethyl fumarate, glatiramer acetate, interferon beta, teriflunomide | At 4 years: 47% lower rate of EDSS score worsening and 50% lower rate of first relapse with HET vs. MET |
Brown et al. (2019) [122] | Observational cohort study | RRMS (N = 1555) | Alemtuzumab, fingolimod, natalizumab | Glatiramer acetate, interferon beta | Lower risk (HR, 0.66) of conversion to SPMS with HET vs. MET over a median of 5.8 years |
Iaffaldano et al. (2021) [123] | Observational cohort study | RRMS (N = 2702) | Alemtuzumab, cladribine, fingolimod, natalizumab, ocrelizumab | Azathioprine, dimethyl fumarate, glatiramer acetate, interferon beta, teriflunomide | Change in EDSS score was lower with HET vs. MET for up to 10 years |
Rojas et al. (2022) [124] | Retrospective cohort study | MS (N = 305) | Alemtuzumab, cladribine, mitoxantrone, natalizumab, ocrelizumab, rituximab | Dimethyl fumarate, fingolimod, glatiramer acetate, interferon beta, teriflunomide | HET decreased risk of EDSS score progression, relapses, and new MRI activity vs. MET |
Early initiation HET vs. delayed initiation HET | |||||
Labiano-Fontcuberta et al. (2022) [118] | Prospective longitudinal study | MS (N = 695) | Alemtuzumab, cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone, natalizumab, ocrelizumab, ofatumumab, rituximab | N/A | Each year of delay in starting HET was associated with cognitive worsening at 12 months (OR, 1.03) |
Merkel et al. (2017) [125] | Systematic review | RRMS (12 studies) | Alemtuzumab, fingolimod, natalizumab | N/A | Early HET offers improved control of relapse activity vs. delayed HET |