Systemic Analgesic Interventions
Cakan et al. performed a placebo-controlled trial to evaluate the effect of intravenous (IV) paracetamol 1000 mg during the first 24 post-operative hours [
11]. Rescue analgesia included IV patient-controlled analgesia (IV-PCA) morphine. Pain scores were significantly lower at 12 h, 18 h and 24 h post-surgery. However, morphine consumption was not statistically significant between the groups.
Kesimci et al. compared oral dexketoprofen 25 mg to oral paracetamol 500 mg to placebo, 30 min before induction of anaesthesia [
12]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. There were no significant differences in pain scores between groups; however, opioid consumption was significantly lower in the dexketoprofen group.
Khajavikhan et al. compared celecoxib 400 mg administered 2 h before surgery and 200 mg administered 6 h after surgery with placebo [
13]. Rescue analgesia included intermittent IV morphine. Significantly lower pain scores were noted in the celecoxib group, and total opioid consumption was also significantly lower in the celecoxib group.
Attia et al. compared oral etoricoxib 120 mg, oral duloxetine 60 mg, the combination of oral etoricoxib 120 mg and duloxetine 60 mg and placebo [
14]. The drugs were administered 1 h before surgery as well as 24 h after surgery. Rescue analgesia included IV paracetamol and intermittent IV morphine. Pain scores were significantly lower at all times in patients receiving the combination of etoricoxib and duloxetine as well in patients receiving etoricoxib alone. Patients receiving the combination of etoricoxib and duloxetine also had significantly lower opioid consumption after surgery.
Duttchen et al. compared IV ketorolac 30 mg to IV ketorolac 15 mg [
15]. Rescue analgesia included intermittent IV morphine. There was no significant difference between the two groups.
Nikooseresh et al. compared diclofenac 100 mg suppository to IV paracetamol 1000 mg [
16]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA fentanyl. There was no significant difference in pain scores; however, opioid consumption was significantly lower with diclofenac.
Cassinelli et al. compared ketorolac 30 mg (15 mg if patient age > 65 years) to placebo [
17]. Rescue analgesia included oral oxycodone and intermittent IV morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower at 0 h and 4 h after surgery in patients receiving ketorolac.
Emamhadi et al. compared diclofenac 100 mg suppository to IM pethidine 0.5 mg/kg [
18]. Rescue analgesia was not reported. Significantly lower pain scores were reported with pethidine at all time points after surgery.
Yadav et al. compared pregabalin 150 mg to pregabalin 300 mg and to placebo, administered 2 h before surgery [
19]. Rescue analgesia included oral NSAIDs and IV-PCA fentanyl. Pain scores and opioid consumption after surgery were significantly lower in both groups of patients receiving pregabalin, without significant differences between the two different doses of pregabalin. There was a higher incidence of dizziness and blurred vision in patients receiving pregabalin 300 mg.
Kumar et al. compared oral pregabalin 150 mg, administered 1 h before induction, with oral tramadol 100 mg and with placebo [
20]. Rescue analgesia included intermittent IV fentanyl and IV diclofenac. Significantly lower pain scores and opioid consumption were seen with both pregabalin and tramadol. Post hoc analysis significantly favoured the tramadol group. No significant difference in anxiety was reported. Adverse effects were not reported.
Choi et al. compared oral pregabalin 150 mg—administered twice a day with a total of 8 doses—to the combination of oral pregabalin 150 mg and IV dexamethasone 5 mg and to placebo [
21]. Rescue analgesia included continuous IV fentanyl. Pain scores were significantly lower in both intervention groups. Opioid consumption was significantly lower with the combination of pregabalin and dexamethasone. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Javaherforooshzadeh et al. compared oral gabapentin 600 mg, administered 100 min before surgery, to oral melatonin 6 mg and to placebo [
22]. Rescue analgesia included IV morphine and IV pethidine. Pain scores were significantly lower in patients that received gabapentin. Opioid consumption was significantly lower in both gabapentin and melatonin groups. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Khan et al. compared oral gabapentin 600 mg, oral gabapentin 900 mg, oral gabapentin 1200 mg and placebo [
23]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in the gabapentin 900 mg and 1200 mg groups. The time of administration (2 h before surgery or at the end of surgery) did not impact the analgesic effect. Adverse effects were not reported.
Vasigh et al. compared oral gabapentin to oral celecoxib in two RCTs [
24,
25]. Rescue analgesia included intermittent IV morphine. One RCT compared oral gabapentin 600 mg administered 2 h before surgery and 300 mg 6 h after surgery, the combination of oral gabapentin 300 mg and oral celecoxib 200 mg administered 2 h before surgery and 6 h after surgery and placebo [
24]. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in patients receiving the combination of gabapentin and celecoxib. The other RCT compared oral gabapentin 600 mg administered 2 h before surgery and 300 mg 6 h after surgery with oral celecoxib 400 mg administered 2 h before surgery and 200 mg 6 h after surgery and with placebo [
25]. Pain scores were lower in patients receiving gabapentin, and opioid consumption was significantly lower in both intervention groups. Adverse effects were not reported.
Ozgencil et al. compared oral pregabalin 150 mg, oral gabapentin 1200 mg and placebo, administered twice before surgery and twice after surgery [
26]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. Pain scores were significantly lower with pregabalin and gabapentin at 1 h, 2 h, 4 h and 6 h after surgery. Opioid consumption was significantly lower in both gabapentin and pregabalin groups at all time points, except at 6 h after surgery where opioid consumption was lower with pregabalin. Except for pruritus, the adverse effects observed were similar among groups. The incidence of pruritus was lower in both the gabapentin and pregabalin groups compared to the placebo group.
Wittayapairoj et al. compared IV dexamethasone 0.2 mg/kg administered before surgery to placebo [
27]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. Pain scores were not significantly different between the two groups, but opioid consumption was significantly lower in patients receiving dexamethasone.
Ghaffaripour et al. compared IV magnesium, with a loading dose of 30 mg/kg at the start of surgery and a continuous infusion of 10 mg/kg/h during surgery, to placebo [
28]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. There were no significant differences between the two groups.
Esmat et al. compared a transdermal fentanyl patch (50 µg/u), a transdermal melatonin delivery system (7 mg) and a transdermal placebo patch [
29]. Rescue analgesia included IM pethidine. Pain scores did not differ significantly between groups, but opioid consumption was lower with transdermal fentanyl and melatonin.
Locoregional anaesthesia
Chan et al. evaluated the analgesic effects of intrathecal fentanyl 15 µg [
30]. Patients in the control group did not receive an intervention. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in patients receiving intrathecal fentanyl. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Yen et al. compared intrathecal morphine 3.5 µg/kg (with a maximum dose of 350 µg) to placebo [
31]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. There was no significant difference in pain scores. Total opioid consumption, however, was significantly lower in patients receiving intrathecal morphine. No episodes of respiratory depression were observed in both groups.
Firouzian et al. compared the intrathecal morphine 200 µg to the combination of intrathecal morphine 200 µg and naloxone 20 µg [
32]. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in patients receiving the combination of intrathecal morphine and naloxone. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Kundra et al. compared epidural gelfoam soaked in morphine 5 mg to the combination of epidural gelfoam soaked in saline and epidural instillation with morphine 5 mg [
33]. Rescue analgesia included IV diclofenac and intermittent IV morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in patients receiving epidural gelfoam soaked in morphine 5 mg. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Guilfoyle et al. evaluated the analgesic effects of fentanyl 100 µg administered through an epidural catheter [
34]. Patients in the control group received no intervention. Rescue analgesia was not reported. Pain scores were significantly lower in patients that received epidural fentanyl when admitted to the recovery, but not afterwards. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Hassanein et al. compared epidural gelfoam soaked in morphine 5 mg (diluted in crystalloid), epidural gelfoam soaked in morphine 5 mg (diluted in colloid) and epidural instillation with morphine 5 mg [
35]. Rescue analgesia included IV diclofenac and intermittent IV morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in both epidural gelfoam groups. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Kumari et al. compared epidural gelfoam soaked in 10 ml levobupivacaine 0.25% combined with dexamethasone 10 mg, epidural gelfoam soaked in 10 ml levobupivacaine 0.25% combined with saline and epidural gelfoam soaked in saline only [
36]. Rescue analgesia included IV tramadol. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in both groups that received epidural gelfoam soaked in levobupivacaine. The addition of dexamethasone did not result in significant differences. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Giri et al. compared epidural gelfoam soaked in ketamine 50 mg diluted with 5 mL saline, epidural gelfoam soaked in nalbuphine 10 mg diluted with 5 mL saline and epidural gelfoam soaked in 5 mL saline [
37]. Rescue analgesia included IV diclofenac. Pain scores were significantly lower in both intervention groups. Total diclofenac consumption was significantly lower in patients receiving epidural gelfoam soaked in ketamine 50 mg. No significant differences in adverse effects were noted.
Ozbek et al. evaluated the analgesic effects of a paravertebral block, performed with 5 mL levobupivacaine 0.5% for each nerve to upper dermatome of laminectomy level [
38]. Patients in the control group did not receive any intervention. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in patients receiving a paravertebral block.
Mordeniz et al. evaluated the analgesic effects of a perineural infiltration with 2 ml of bupivacaine 0.5% [
39]. Perineural infiltration was defined as the infiltration of local anaesthetics in the irritated neural root sheath, before root extraction. Patients in the control group did not receive any intervention. Rescue analgesia included IV tramadol Opioid consumption after surgery was significantly lower in patients that received a perineural infiltration.
Torun et al. evaluated the analgesic effects of a perineural infiltration with 0.5 ml of lidocaine 2% [
40]. Patients in the control group did not receive any intervention. Rescue analgesia included IV tramadol. Opioid consumption after surgery was significantly lower in patients that received a perineural infiltration.
Saini et al. compared wound instillation with 20 ml of ropivacaine 0.25% to placebo [
41]. Wound instillation was defined as the irrigation of the local analgesic into the surgical area for a dwell time of 60 s. Rescue analgesia included IV paracetamol and IV diclofenac. Pain scores and opioid consumption after surgery were significantly lower in the intervention group.
Jonnavithula et al. compared wound instillation with 20 ml of bupivacaine 0.25% to placebo [
42]. Rescue analgesia included IM diclofenac. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in patients that received wound instillation with bupivacaine.
Rahmanian et al. compared surgical wound instillation with 30 ml of bupivacaine 0.25% with placebo [
43]. Rescue analgesia was not reported. Pain scores after surgery did not differ between the two groups.
Gurbet et al. compared wound infiltration with 20 ml of levobupivacaine 0.25% combined with methylprednisolone 40 mg, wound infiltration with 20 ml of bupivacaine 0.25% combined with methylprednisolone 40 mg and placebo [
44]. Wound infiltration was defined as direct administration of the local analgesic along the line of the incision. Rescue analgesia included IV-PCA morphine. Pain scores and opioid consumption were significantly lower in both intervention groups.
Hazarika et al. compared local wound infiltration with 20 ml of bupivacaine 0.25% combined with magnesium sulphate 500 mg to 20 ml of ropivacaine 0.25% combined with magnesium sulphate 500 mg [
45]. Rescue analgesia included IV nalbuphine. There was no significant difference in pain scores after surgery; however, opioid consumption was significantly lower in patients that received local wound infiltration with bupivacaine.