Increasing age was the most consistent correlate of all aspects of motor competence. |
Aside from age, correlates of motor competence differ according to how motor competence is operationalized. |
Investigating correlates of motor skills in children and adolescents is an emerging area with much scope for future investigation. |
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Identification of Studies
2.2 Selection Criteria
2.3 Criteria for Risk of Bias Assessment
2.4 Categorization of Variables and Level of Evidence
2.5 Meta-Analyses
3 Results
3.1 Overview of Studies
Study | Year | Country | Sample size | Sex (B, G) | Age (mean ± SD) | Age group | Design |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abbas et al. [67] | 2011 | India | 197 | B 99, G 98 | 9½–14½ y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Bakhtiar [68] | 2014 | Indonesia | 67 | B 28, G 39 | 6.55 ± 0.25 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Barnett et al. [96] | 2010 | Australia | 266 | B 48.1 %, G 51.9 % | T1: 10.06 ± 0.63 y T2: 16.44 ± 0.6 4y | Adolescents | Longitudinal |
Barnett et al. [33] | 2011 | Australia | 215 | B 48.4 %, G 51.6 % | 16.4 ± 0.6 y | Adolescents | Cross-sectional |
Barnett et al. [50] | 2012 | Australia | 53 | B 41 %, G 59 % | 4.15 ± 0.72 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Barnett et al. [49] | 2013 | Australia | 76 | B 34, G 42 | 4.1 ± 0.68 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Bellows et al. [51] | 2013 | USA | 263 | B NR, G NR | C: 51.5 ± 6.6 mo I: 53 ± 6.8 mo | Preschool | Randomized controlled trial (baseline data used) |
Choi Tse [69] | 2004 | Hong Kong | 90 | B 45, G 45 | 6–8 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Chow and Chan [52] | 2011 | Hong Kong | 239 | B 121, G 118 | 3.6 ± 0.2 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Cohen et al. [70] | 2014 | Australia | 460 | B 46 %, G 54 % | 8.5 ± 0.6 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
D’Hondt et al. [71] | 2009 | Belgium | 117 | B 57, G 60 | 5–10 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
D’Hondt et al. [72] | 2013 | Belgium | 100 | B 52 %, G 48 % | T1: 8.2 ± 1.2 y T2: NR | Children | Longitudinal |
D’Hondt et al. [73] | 2014 | Belgium | T1: 2517 T2: 754 | T1: B 52.8 %, G 47.2 % T2: B 50.8 %, G 49.2 % | T1: 5–13 y T2: 7–13 y | Children | Longitudinal |
Erwin and Castelli [18] | 2008 | USA | 180 | B 87, G 93 | 10.45 ± 0.7 8y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Goodway and Rudisill [53] | 1997 | USA | 59 | B 30, G 29 | 4.74 ± 0.31 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Goodway et al. [22] | 2010 | USA | 469 (MW = 275, SW = 194) | MW: B 143, G 132 SW: B 95, G 99 | MW: 54.80 mo SW: 56.37 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Habib et al. [74] | 1999 | Pakistan | 180 | B 90, G 90 | 5–13 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Hume et al. [75] | 2008 | Australia | 248 | B 123, G 125 | B: 10.1 ± 0.44 y G: 10.0 ± 0.28 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Iteya et al. [54] | 1995 | Japan | 273 | Foot laterality: B 93, G 42 Hand laterality: B 78, G 60 | Foot laterality: 5.3 y Hand laterality: 5.5 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Jaakkola and Washington [97] | 2013 | Finland | 152 | B 86, G 66 | T1: 13 y T2: NR T3: NR | Adolescents | Longitudinal |
Jones et al. [76] | 2010 | Australia | 1299 | B 52 %, G 48 % | 6.35 ± 1.07 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Junaid and Fellowes [77] | 2006 | Canada | 103 | B 60, G 43 | 7–8 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Kemp and Pienaar [78] | 2013 | South Africa | 816 | B 419, G 397 | 6.84 ± 0.39 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Lam and Schiller [55] | 2001 | Hong Kong | 320 | B 149, G 171 | 5–6 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Larouche et al. [79] | 2014 | Canada | 491 | B 43.6 %, G 56.4 % | Grade 4–6 | Children | Cross-sectional |
Laukkanen et al. [99] | 2014 | Finland | 84 | B 38, G 46 | Preschool B: 5.92 ± 0.45 y Preschool G: 5.95 ± 0.47 y Primary B: 7.93 ± 0.34 y Primary G: 8.06 ± 0.15 y | Preschool and children | Randomized controlled trial (midline data used) |
LeGear et al. [56] | 2012 | Canada | 260 | B 52 %, G 48 % | 5 y 9 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Lopes et al. [80] | 2012 | Portugal | 213 | B 103, G 110 | 9.46 ± 0.43 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Lopes et al. [19] | 2012 | Portugal | 7175 | B 3616, G 3559 | 6–14 y | Children and adolescents | Cross-sectional |
MacCobb et al. [81] | 2005 | Ireland | 76 | B 38, G 38 | 8–10 y | Children | Longitudinal |
McKenzie et al. [82] | 2002 | USA | 207 | B 104, G 103 | T1: 4 y T2: 5 y T3: 6 y | Children | Longitudinal |
McPhillips and Jordan-Black [83] | 2007 | Northern Ireland | 515 | B 283, G 232 | Year 1: 57.4 ± 3.6 mo Year 4: 101.4 ± 4.5 mo | Children | Cross-sectional |
Morano et al. [57] | 2011 | Italy | 80 | B 38, G 42 | 4.5 ± 0.5 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Morrison et al. [84] | 2012 | Denmark | 498 | B 265, G 233 | B: 6.8 ± 0.4 y G: 6.7 ± 0.4 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Nervik et al. [58] | 2011 | USA | 50 | B 26, G 24 | 53 ± 10.5 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Okely et al. [100] | 2004 | Australia | 4268 | B 2295, G 1973 | Grade 4, 6, 8, 10 | Children and adolescents | Cross-sectional |
Okely et al. [98] | 2001 | Australia | 2026 | B 1081, G 945 | Year 8: 13.3 y Year 10: 15.3 y | Adolescents | Cross-sectional |
Olesen et al. [59] | 2014 | Denmark | 607 | B 299, G 308 | 5.8 ± 0.3 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Parvez et al. [85] | 2011 | Bangladesh | 303 | B 50 %, G 50 % | 9.6 ± 0.7 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Queiroz et al. [60] | 2014 | Brazil | LOC SP: 54 LOC NSP: 54 OC SP: 37 OC NSP: 37 | LOC SP: B 30, G 24 LOC NSP: B 30, G 24 OC SP: B 17, G 20 OC NSP: B 17, G 20 | LOC SP: 60.0 ± 8.7 mo LOC NSP: 59.4 ± 8.1 mo OC SP: 60.9 ± 7.9 mo OC NSP: 60.7 ± 7.9 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Ratzon et al. [86] | 2000 | Israel | 114 (children born to diabetic mothers = 57, children in control group = 57) | Children born to diabetic mothers: B 51 %, G 49 % Children in control group: B 56 %, G 44 % | Children born to diabetic mothers: 8.09 ± 1.77 y Children in control group: 8.29 ± 1.78 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Roberts et al. [61] | 2012 | USA | 4650 | B 2150, G 2500 | 5 y 3 mo ± 4 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Robinson [62] | 2010 | USA | 119 | B 65, G 54 | 4 ± 0.55y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Robinson et al. [63] | 2012 | USA | 34 | B 12, G 22 | 57 ± 6.31 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Roeber et al. [87] | 2012 | USA | 67 (adopted = 33, not adopted = 34) | Adopted: B 16, G 17 Not adopted: B 21, G 13 | Adopted: 10 y 9 mo ± 2 y 2 mo Not adopted: 11 y 2 mo ± 2 y 1 mo | Children | Cross-sectional |
Saraiva et al. [64] | 2013 | Portugal | 367 | B 172, G 195 | 53 ± 9.6 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Slotte et al. [88] | 2014 | Finland | 304 | B 153, G 151 | 8.6 ± 0.2 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Spessato et al. [23] | 2013 | Brazil | 1248 | B 641, G 607 | 3–10 y | Preschool and children | Cross-sectional |
Temple et al. [65] | 2014 | Canada | 74 | B 41, G 33 | 5 y 11 mo ± 4 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Tsapsakidou et al. [89] | 2014 | Greece | 100 | B 54, G 46 | 8–9 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Vandendriessche et al. [90] | 2012 | Belgium | 1955 | B 52 %, G 48 % | 6–11 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Vandorpe et al. [91] | 2012 | Belgium | 371 | NR | T1: 8.3 ± 1.1 y T2: 10.3 ± 1.1 y | Children | Longitudinal |
Vedul-Kjelsås et al. [92] | 2013 | Norway | 67 | B 39, G 28 | B: 11.50 ± 0.26 y G: 11.40 ± 0.26 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Venetsanou and Kambas [93] | 2011 | Greece | 283 | B 145, G 138 | 61.77 ± 5.43 mo | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Viholanen et al. [48] | 2006 | Finland | 130 | B 70, G 60 | 3.5 y | Birth to preschool | Longitudinal |
Woll et al. [101] | 2013 | Germany | 4519 | B 2,310, G 2,209 | 4–17 y | Children and adolescents | Cross-sectional |
Woodard and Yun [66] | 2001 | USA | 138 | B 65, G 73 | 5.3 y | Preschool | Cross-sectional |
Wright and Bos [94] | 2012 | Canada | 84 | B 44, G 40 | 8–11 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Ziviani et al. [95] | 2009 | Australia | 124 | B 55, G 69 | 6–12 y | Children | Cross-sectional |
Total sample | No. of studies | References |
---|---|---|
<100 | 14 | |
100–199 | 14 | |
200–299 | 10 | |
300–399 | 5 | |
400–499 | 4 | |
500–999 | 3 | |
1000–2999 | 4 | |
3000–5000 | 4 | |
>5000 | 1 | [19] |
3.2 Overview of Study Risk of Bias
Study details | Study quality | Correlates assessed and quality | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study | Year | Representative sampling | Minimal missing data | Valid FMS | FMS reliabilities ≥ 0.60 | Number of correlates | Age | Sex | BMI | Other correlates |
Abbas et al. [67] | 2011 | ✓ | ? | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Bakhtiar [68] | 2014 | ✓ | ? | ✓ | ? | 1 | ✓ | |||
Barnett et al. [96] | 2010 | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Barnett et al. [33] | 2011 | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | 2 | MVPA (✓), perceived sports competence (✓) | |||
Barnett et al. [50] | 2012 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 5 | ✓ | ✓ | PA (✓), non-interactive games (✘), interactive games (✘) | |
Barnett et al. [49] | 2013 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 12 | ✓ | ✓ | MVPA (✓), unstructured activities (✘), swimming lessons (✘), dance classes (✘), kindy gym classes (✘), parent child interaction (✘), parent MPA/VPA (✘), parent skill confidence (✘), visits to play spaces (✘), toys home equipment (✘) | |
Bellows et al. [51] | 2013 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | Steps (✓) | |||
Choi Tse [69] | 2004 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Chow and Chan [52] | 2011 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Preschool size (✓) | ||
Cohen et al. [70] | 2014 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
D’Hondt et al. [71] | 2009 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | SES/parental education (✓) | ||
D’Hondt et al. [72] | 2013 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Organized sport (✘) | ||
D’Hondt et al. [73] | 2014 | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 3 | ✓ | ✓ | PA (?) | |
Erwin and Castelli [18] | 2008 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 6 | ✓ | ✓ | Ethnicity (✓), school year (✓), fitness (✓), strategic knowledge (?) | |
Goodway and Rudisill [53] | 1997 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Goodway et al. [22] | 2010 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Region (✓) | ||
Habib et al. [74] | 1999 | ✘ | ? | ✓ | ✓ | 3 | ✓ | ✓ | SES (✓) | |
Hume et al. [75] | 2008 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Iteya et al. [54] | 1995 | ✘ | ✓ | ? | ? | 1 | Limb laterality (✘) | |||
Jaakkola and Washington [97] | 2013 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ? | 3 | ✓ | ✓ | PA (?) | |
Jones et al. [76] | 2010 | ? | ✓ | ✘ | ? | 1 | ✓ | |||
Junaid and Fellowes [77] | 2006 | ✘ | ? | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Kemp and Pienaar [78] | 2013 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ? | 1 | ✓ | |||
Lam and Schiller [55] | 2001 | ? | ✓ | ? | ? | 1 | ✓ | |||
Larouche et al. [79] | 2014 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Laukkanen et al. [99] | 2014 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
LeGear et al. [56] | 2012 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Lopes et al. [80] | 2012 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Sedentary behavior (✓) | ||
Lopes et al. [19] | 2012 | ✘ | ? | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
MacCobb et al. [81] | 2005 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 6 | Birth weight (✓), APGAR at 5 min (✓), Bailey infant behavior (✓), Bailey mental (✓), NBAS motoric cluster (✓), Bailey motor (✓) | |||
McKenzie et al. [82] | 2002 | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Ethnicity (✓) | ||
McPhillips and Jordan-Black [83] | 2007 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Disadvantage (✓) | ||
Morano et al. [57] | 2011 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ? | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Morrison et al. [84] | 2012 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ? | 3 | ✓ | PA (✓), body fat (skinfolds) (?) | ||
Nervik et al. [58] | 2011 | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | 3 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Okely et al. [100] | 2004 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Waist (✓) | ||
Okely et al. [98] | 2001 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Olesen et al. [59] | 2014 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Parvez et al. [85] | 2011 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | 3 | Arsenic (✓), manganese (✓), selenium (✓) | |||
Queiroz et al. [60] | 2014 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | Sport practice (✓) | ||
Ratzon et al. [86] | 2000 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | Maternal diabetes (✓) | |||
Roberts et al. [61] | 2012 | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Robinson [62] | 2010 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Robinson et al. [63] | 2012 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Roeber et al. [87] | 2012 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 4 | ✓ | Adoption status (✓), time living in USA (✓), Time spent institutionalized before adoption (✓) | ||
Saraiva et al. [64] | 2013 | ✘ | ? | ✓ | ✓ | 4 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Height (✓) |
Slotte et al. [88] | 2014 | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ? | 5 | ✓ | ✓ | Waist (✓), height (✓), body fat (✓) | |
Spessato et al. [23] | 2013 | ✘ | ? | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Temple et al. [65] | 2014 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ? | 5 | ✓ | ✓ | Active physical recreation (?), participation in PA (?), organized sports (?) | |
Tsapsakidou et al. [89] | 2014 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 5 | ✓ | Maternal education (✓), paternal education (✓), SES (✓), sport participation (✓) | ||
Vandendriessche et al. [90] | 2012 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 3 | ✓ | SES (✓), sport participation (✓) | ||
Vandorpe et al. [91] | 2012 | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | Organized sport (✓) | |||
Vedul-Kjelsås et al. [92] | 2013 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Venetsanou and Kambas [93] | 2011 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Viholanen et al. [48] | 2006 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | 2 | Early body (✓), hand control (✓) | ||||
Woll et al. [101] | 2013 | ✓ | ? | ✓ | ✘ | 1 | ✓ | |||
Woodard and Yun [66] | 2001 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | 2 | ✓ | Group/SES (✓) | ||
Wright and Bos [94] | 2012 | ✘ | ✓ | ? | ✓ | 3 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Ziviani et al. [95] | 2009 | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | ? | 1 | ✓ | |||
Total | 32.2 % (19/59) | 57.6 % (34/59) | 86.4 % (51/59) | 72.9 % (43/59) | 18 | 42 | 14 |
3.3 Biological and Demographic Correlates
3.4 Behavioral Attributes and Skills Correlates
3.5 Evidence for Other Factors as Correlates of Motor Competence
Correlate | Association | Object control | Locomotor | Stability | Motor coordination | Skill composite | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Evidence | Evidence | Evidence | Evidence | Evidence | |||||||
Biological and demographic factors
| |||||||||||
Age | ++ | ++ | ++ | ? | ? | ||||||
Age |
+
| 5/7 (71 %) | 5/6 (83 %) | 4/5 (80 %) | [90] (B) | 2/4 (50 %) | [97] (B) [94] | 3/7 (43 %) | |||
− | [97] (G) | ||||||||||
ND | [65] | [65] | [87] | [73] [90] (G) | |||||||
Grade (school year level) | + | [99] | [98] | ||||||||
ND | [99] | [18] | |||||||||
BMI | 0 | ? | − | −− | −− | ||||||
BMI/weight (higher) | − | 2/6 (33 %) | [57] [76] (G) | 2/5 (40 %) | [64] (A5) | 3/4 (75 %) | 4/4 (100 %) | [76] (G) | 6/10 (60 %) | ||
ND | [76] (B) | [76] | [76] (B) [100] (Gr10B) | ||||||||
Body fat/height/waist/weight | |||||||||||
Birth weight | ND | [81] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Body fat | − | 2/2 | |||||||||
Height | + | 0/1 | 0/1 | [64] (A3) | 1/1 | 0/1 | |||||
ND | [64] (A4 and 5) | [64] (A4 and 5) | [88] | ||||||||
Waist | − | 2/3 | |||||||||
ND | [100] (Gr8G, Gr10B) | ||||||||||
Advantage/disadvantage | ? | + | + | ? | + | ||||||
Socioeconomic status | + | [66] | 2/5 (40 %) | [66] | 2/2 (100 %) (high SES) 1/1 (100 %) (low SES) | 3/4 (75 %) | [90] (G) | 1/2 (50 %) | [66] | 1/1 (100 %) | |
− | [89] | ||||||||||
ND | [71] | [90] (B) | |||||||||
Region (two disadvantaged regions) | + | [22] | |||||||||
ND | [22] | ||||||||||
Social advantaged school | + | [83] (Gr1) | [83] (Gr1) | ||||||||
ND | [83] (Gr4) | [83] (Gr4) | |||||||||
Sex | ++ | 0 | 0 (B) ? (G) | ++ | ? | ||||||
Sex | + (B) | [95] (A4–10) | 16/26 (62 %) (B) | 2/20 (10 %) (B) 3/20 (15 %) (G) | [74] (high SES) | 1/12 (8 %) (B) 5/12 (42 %) (G) | [99] (preschool) | 4/5 (80 %) (B) | [79] (score) | 7/18 (39 %) (B) 2/18 (11 %) (G) | |
+ (G) | [74] (low SES) [83] (Gr4G) | [79] (time) [82] (G) | |||||||||
ND | [83] (Gr1 and 4) [95] (A11–12) | [83] (Gr1) | [99] (primary) | ||||||||
Other | |||||||||||
Ethnicity | ND | 0/2 | |||||||||
Fitness | + | [18] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Limb laterality | ND | [54] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Behavioral attributes and skills
| |||||||||||
Activity class participation | |||||||||||
Dance classes | − | [49] | 1/1 | 0/1 | |||||||
ND | [49] | ||||||||||
Kindy-gym classes | ND | [49] | 0/1 | [49] | 0/1 | ||||||
Swimming lessons | + | 0/1 | [49] | 1/1 | |||||||
ND | [49] | ||||||||||
Physical activity | ? | ? | 0 | + | + | ||||||
Active physical recreation | ND | [65] | 5/11 (45 %) | [65] | 5/11 (45 %) | 0/1 (0 %) | ¾ (75 %) | ¾ (75 %) | |||
Participation in physical activities | + | [65] (B) | [65] (B) | ||||||||
ND | [65] (G) | [65] (G) | |||||||||
Physical activity | + | [33] (MVPA) [49] (MVPA) | [50] (cpm) [33] (MVPA) [51] (steps) | [84] [51] (steps) [97] (Gr9 all, Gr7B) | |||||||
ND | [50] (cpm) [51] (steps) | [49] | [51] (steps) | [73] | [97] (Gr7) | ||||||
Organized sport participation | + | [65] (B) | |||||||||
ND | [65] (G) | ||||||||||
Sports practice | + | [60] (G) | [60] | ||||||||
Unstructured physical activity/leisure time | ND | [49] | [49] | ||||||||
Sedentary time (less) | + | [80] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Skills | |||||||||||
Early body control | + | [48] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Early hand control | − | [48] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Other | |||||||||||
Interactive game use | + | [50] | 1/1 | 0/1 | |||||||
ND | [50] | ||||||||||
Non-interactive game use | ND | [50] | 0/1 | [50] | 0/1 | ||||||
Cognitive, emotional and psychological factors
| |||||||||||
Cognitive | |||||||||||
Strategic knowledge | + | [18] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Infant factors | |||||||||||
APGAR at 5 min | ND | [81] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Bailey infant behavior record | + | [81] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Bailey mental scale | ND | [81] | 0/1 | ||||||||
NBAS motoric cluster at 21 days | + | [81] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Bailey motor scale | ND | [81] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Psychological | |||||||||||
Perceived competence | + | [33] | 1/1 | [33] | 1/1 | ||||||
Cultural and social factors
| |||||||||||
Adoption status | − | [87] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Maternal education | + | [87] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Mother with diabetes | − | [86] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Parental physical activity | ND | [49] | 0/1 | [49] | 0/1 | ||||||
Parent–child interaction | ND | [49] | 0/1 | [49] | 0/1 | ||||||
Parent skill confidence | + | [49] | 1/1 | 0/1 | |||||||
ND | [49] | ||||||||||
Paternal education | ND | [89] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Time living in USA | ND | [87] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Time spent institutionalized before adoption | − | [87] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Physical environmental factors
| |||||||||||
Neurotoxicity | |||||||||||
Arsenic exposure | − | [85] | 1/1 | ||||||||
Manganese exposure | ND | [85] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Selenium exposure | ND | [85] | 0/1 | ||||||||
Physical environment | |||||||||||
Playground at preschool (bigger) | + | 1/1 | [52] | 1/1 | 0/1 | ||||||
− | [52] | ||||||||||
ND | [52] | ||||||||||
Toys and home equipment | ND | [49] | 0/1 | [49] | 0/1 | ||||||
Visits to play spaces | ND | [49] | 0/1 | [49] | 0/1 |