Introduction
Subjects and methods
Study population
Diet group classification
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Vegetarian (no meat, sausage, or fish, but with dairy products and/or eggs).
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Vegan (no meat, sausage, fish, dairy products, or eggs).
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Omnivorous (with meat and/or sausage and/or fish).
Dietary assessment
Assessment of covariables
Data analysis and statistics
Results
Sample characteristics
VN | VG | OM | |
---|---|---|---|
Total | 139 (32.3) | 127 (29.5) | 164 (38.1) |
Sex† | |||
Female | 76 (54.7) | 64 (50.4) | 83 (50.3) |
Male | 63 (45.3) | 63 (49.6) | 81 (49.4) |
Age yearsa‡ | 1.8 (1.3) | 2.0 (1.4) | 2.0 (1.5) |
TEI MJ/da‡ | 4.1 (1.5) | 4.0 (1.2) | 4.1 (1.0) |
Carbohydrate intake E%a‡ | 53.8 (9.9) | 53.6 (7.8) | 53.1 (9.4) |
Protein intake E%a‡ | 11.2 (2.5)1 | 11.1 (2.6)2 | 13.2 (2.7)1,2 |
Protein intake g/kg BWa‡ | 2.3 (0.9)1 | 2.3 (0.8)2 | 2.5 (0.9)1,2 |
Child body weight kgb‡ | 12.0 ± 2.5 | 12.1 ± 2.3 | 12.7 ± 2.6 |
Child body height cmb‡ | 85.6 ± 8.8 | 86.6 ± 8.8 | 88.2 ± 9.3 |
Weight-for-height z-scoreb‡ | 0.16 ± 1.08 | 0.11 ± 0.95 | 0.23 ± 0.96 |
Height-for-age z-scoreb‡ | 0.01 ± 1.26 | 0.11 ± 1.34 | 0.13 ± 1.01 |
Weight-for-age z-scorea‡ | 0.11 ± 0.93 | 0.17 ± 0.99 | 0.25 ± 0.87 |
Urbanicity (n = 429)† | |||
Rural < 5000 | 28 (20.1) | 19 (15.0) | 28 (17.2) |
Small-size urban 5000– < 20,000 | 20 (14.4) | 16 (12.6) | 17 (10.4) |
Medium-size urban 20,000– < 100,000 | 31 (22.3) | 33 (26.0) | 31 (19.0) |
Metropolitan ≥ 100,000 | 60 (43.2) | 59 (46.5) | 87 (53.4) |
SES Winkler index score† | |||
Low 3–8 | 2 (1.4) | 3 (2.4) | 0 (0.0) |
Middle 9–14 | 37 (26.6) | 31 (24.4) | 30 (18.3) |
High 15–21 | 100 (71.9) | 93 (73.2) | 134 (81.7) |
Physical activity (n = 429)† | |||
Less active < 4 times/week | 70 (50.0) | 71 (55.5) | 64 (39.8) |
Active or very active | 70 (50.0) | 57 (44.5) | 97 (60.2) |
Season of dietary record† | |||
Spring | 45 (32.4) | 21 (16.5) | 36 (22.0) |
Summer | 17 (12.2) | 20 (15.7) | 38 (23.2) |
Autumn | 36 (25.9) | 41 (32.3) | 43 (26.2) |
Winter | 41 (29.5) | 45 (35.4) | 47 (28.7) |
Paternal BMI (kg/m2) (n = 425)a‡ | 24.3 (4.1) | 24.5 (3.9) | 25.7 (3.1) |
Breastfeeding | |||
Ever breastfed† | 138 (99.3) | 121 (95.3) | 157 (95.7) |
Duration of exclusively breastfeeding (mo)a‡ | 15.9 (10.0)1, 2 | 13.1 (10.0)1 | 11.1 (7.0)2 |
Breastfed during dietary record† | 68 (48.9)1 | 34 (26.8) 1 | 17 (10.4)1 |
Breast milk intake in dietary record in kcal/d (all participants)a, b‡ | 0 (22.1)1 13.4 ± 18.51 | 0 (6.2)1 7.2 ± 14.61 | 0 (0.0)1 2.3 ± 9.01 |
Breast milk intake in dietary record (g/d) (only breastfed subjects, n = 119)a‡ | 303.3 (280.0) | 275.0 (186.3) | 163.3 (316.7) |
Dietary supplement intake in dietary records, all supplements† | |||
Yes | 135 (97.1)1, 2 | 68 (53.5)1 | 66 (40.2)2 |
No | 4 (2.9)1, 2 | 59 (46.5)1 | 98 (59.8)2 |
Vitamin B12 supplement intake in dietary records† | |||
Yes | 135 (97.1)1 | 45 (35.4)1 | 13 (7.9)1 |
No | 4 (2.9)1 | 82 (64.6)1 | 151 (92.1)1 |
Dietary supplement intake in the online questionnaire but not in dietary records, all supplements† | |||
Yes | 3 (2.2)1 | 13 (10.2)2 | 33 (20.1)1,2 |
Iodised salt use in general or daily use of iodised bread† | |||
Yes | 90 (65.7)1 | 89 (70.1)2 | 141 (86.5)1,2 |
No | 47 (34.3)1 | 38 (29.9)2 | 22 (13.5)1,2 |
Weekend days in the dietary records† | |||
0 weekend days | 57 (41.0) | 49 (38.6) | 49 (29.9) |
1 weekend day | 37 (26.6) | 33 (26.0) | 50 (30.5) |
2 weekend days | 45 (32.4) | 41 (32.2) | 63 (38.4) |
3 weekend days | 0 (0.0) | 4 (3.2) | 2 (1.2) |
Start of the diet† | |||
With the introduction of supplementary food | 123 (88.5) | 107 (84.3) | 140 (85.4) |
Later | 16 (11.5) | 18 (14.2) | 24 (14.6) |
Missing | 0 (0.0) | 2 (1.5) | 0 (0.0) |
Mothers’ diets† | |||
VN | 136 (97.8)1 | 42 (33.1)1 | 10 (6.1)1 |
VG | 3 (2.2)1 | 80 (63.0)1 | 16 (9.8)1 |
OM | 0 (0.0)1 | 5 (3.9)1 | 138 (84.1)1 |
Micronutrient intake
VN (n = 139) | VG (n = 127) | OM (n = 164) | h-AR | Basic model∆ | Fully adjusted model‡ | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p | Partial η2 | p | Partial η2 | |||||
Vitamin A (retinol eq) (µg/d)a | 550 (377–779) | 475 (331–654) | 560 (372–854) | 205 | 0.008 | 0.022 | 0.008 | 0.024 |
β-carotene (mg/d)b | 3.2 (1.9–5.1) | 2.5 (1.4–3.8) | 2.3 (1.4–4.6) | – | 0.020 | 0.018 | 0.002 | 0.031 |
Vitamin E (mg/d)c | 8.3 (6.1–11.7)1 | 7.4 (5.1–9.9)1 | 5.1 (3.9–7.0)1 | 5.0 | < 0.0001 | 0.200 | < 0.0001 | 0.196§ |
Vitamin K (µg/d)d | 82 (53–120)1,2 | 67 (41–86)1 | 46 (26–72)2 | – | < 0.0001 | 0.099 | < 0.0001 | 0.110 |
Vitamin B1 (µg/d)e | 569 (437–754)1,2 | 513 (377–611)1 | 481 (398–605)2 | 400 | < 0.0001 | 0.038 | < 0.0001 | 0.124 |
Vitamin B2 (µg/d)f | 429 (325–537)1 | 461 (375–641)2 | 639 (517–800)1,2 | 500 | < 0.0001 | 0.175 | < 0.0001 | 0.202§ |
Vitamin B6 (mg/d)g | 0.8 (0.6–1.1)1,2 | 0.7 (0.6–0.8)1 | 0.7 (0.6–0.9)2 | 0.5 | 0.002 | 0.030 | < 0.0001 | 0.117 |
Folate (µg/d)h | 143 (106–197)1,2 | 116 (96–149)1 | 108 (90–135)2 | 90 | < 0.0001 | 0.148 | < 0.0001 | 0.148§ |
Vitamin C (mg/d)i | 63 (44–84)1 | 54 (41–66) | 45 (32–63)1 | 15 | < 0.0001 | 0.076 | < 0.0001 | 0.073§ |
Potassium (mg/d)j | 1839 (1387–2204)1,2 | 1567 (1227–1858)1 | 1513 (1309–1861)2 | – | < 0.0001 | 0.065 | < 0.0001 | 0.113§ |
Calcium (mg/d)k # | 320 (251–453)1 | 399 (280–567) | 445 (356–553)1 | 390 | < 0.0001 | 0.059 | < 0.0001 | 0.060 |
Magnesium (mg/d)l | 241 (180–310)1 | 188 (143–240)1 | 164 (134–195)1 | 65 | < 0.0001 | 0.147 | < 0.0001 | 0.292§ |
Iron (mg/d)m | 8.9 (6.0–11.6)1 | 7.3 (5.5–9.0)1 | 6.0 (4.7–7.4)1 | 5.0/10.0* | < 0.0001 | 0.111 | < 0.0001 | 0.300 |
Zinc (mg/d)n | 4.9 (3.7–6.2) | 4.7 (3.8–5.6) | 5.0 (4.1–5.8) | 3.6 | 0.194 | 0.008 | 0.111 | 0.012 |
Iodine (µg/d)o | 31 (22–44)1 | 33 (23–45)1 | 47 (36–61)1 | 65 | < 0.0001 | 0.118 | < 0.0001 | 0.167§ |
VN (n = 139) | VG (n = 127) | OM (n = 164) | h-AR | p † | r | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
VN vs VG | VG vs OM | VN vs OM | ||||||
Vitamin B12 (µg/d) | 0.2 (0.1–0.4)1 | 0.6 (0.3–1.0)1 | 1.5 (1.1–2.3)1 | 0.7 | < 0.0001 | 0.399 | 0.471 | 0.656 |
Vitamin D (µg/d) | 0.7 (0.3–1.1) | 0.8 (0.4–1.4) | 0.8 (0.5–1.6) | 10 | 0.006 | 0.120 | 0.017 | 0.143 |
VN (n = 139) | VG (n = 127) | OM (n = 164) | h-AR | Basic model∆ | Fully adjusted model‡ | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p | Partial η2 | p | Partial η2 | ||||||
Vitamin A (retinol eq) (µg/d)a | 554 (381–794) | 475 (331–676) | 570 (372–854) | 205 | 0.008 | 0.023 | 0.006 | 0.025 | |
β-carotene (mg/d)b | 3.3 (1.9–5.1) | 2.5 (1.4–3.9) | 2.3 (1.4–4.6) | – | 0.019 | 0.019 | 0.002 | 0.031 | |
Vitamin E (mg/d)c | 8.3 (6.1–11.4)1 | 7.4 (5.1–9.7)1 | 5.1 (3.9–7.0)1 | 5.0 | < 0.0001 | 0.175 | < 0.0001 | 0.169§ | |
Vitamin K (µg/d)d | 87 (52–128)1,2 | 66 (39–86)1 | 47 (26–73)2 | – | < 0.0001 | 0.103 | < 0.0001 | 0.117 | |
Vitamin B1 (µg/d)e | 572 (448–789)1,2 | 514 (377–625)1 | 481 (398–610)2 | 400 | < 0.0001 | 0.037 | < 0.0001 | 0.094§ | |
Vitamin B2 (µg/d)f | 448 (336–591)1 | 478 (386–673)2 | 639 (523–822)1,2 | 500 | < 0.0001 | 0.080 | < 0.0001 | 0.073§ | |
Vitamin B6 (mg/d)g | 0.9 (0.6–1.2)1,2 | 0.7 (0.6–0.9)1 | 0.7 (0.6–0.9)2 | 0.5 | < 0.0001 | 0.048 | < 0.0001 | 0.107§ | |
Folate (µg/d)h | 153 (113–218)1,2 | 117 (98–151)1 | 108 (91–138)2 | 90 | < 0.0001 | 0.129 | < 0.0001 | 0.156§ | |
Vitamin C (mg/d)i | 63 (47–89)1 | 56 (41–68) | 47 (32–64)1 | 15 | < 0.0001 | 0.078 | < 0.0001 | 0.070§ | |
Potassium (mg/d)j | 1839 (1387–2204)1,2 | 1568 (1227–1858)1 | 1513 (1321–1868)2 | – | < 0.0001 | 0.064 | < 0.0001 | 0.112§ | |
Calcium (mg/d)k # | 327 (251–467)1 | 392 (280–567) | 452 (357–564)1 | 390 | < 0.0001 | 0.054 | < 0.0001 | 0.055 | |
Magnesium (mg/d)l | 244 (181–310)1 | 189 (143–240)1 | 164 (135–195)1 | 65 | < 0.0001 | 0.184 | < 0.0001 | 0.346 | |
Iron (mg/d)m | 9.2 (6.1–11.9)1 | 7.3 (5.5–9.0)1 | 6.0 (4.7–7.4)1 | 5.0/10.0* | < 0.0001 | 0.125 | < 0.0001 | 0.272§ | |
Zinc (mg/d)n | 5.0 (3.6–6.3) | 4.8 (3.8–5.7) | 5.0 (4.1–5.8) | 3.6 | 0.185 | 0.008 | 0.028 | 0.019 | |
Iodine (µg/d)o | 34 (23–48) | 33 (23–45) | 48 (36–63) | 65 | < 0.0001 | 0.082 | < 0.0001 | 0.082§ | |
20:5n-3 (EPA) (mg/d)p | 4.4 (1.0–9.3)1 | 1.6 (0.4–5.4)2 | 10.7 (4.3–46.6)1,2 | – | < 0.0001 | 0.229 | < 0.0001 | 0.250§ | |
22:6n-3 (DHA) (mg/d)q | 19.1 (6.2–42.6)1 | 19.5 (6.8–37.9)2 | 35.4 (15.6–82.3)1,2 | – | < 0.0001 | 0.088 | < 0.0001 | 0.158§ |
VN (n = 139) | VG (n = 127) | OM (n = 164) | h-AR | p† | r | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
VN vs VG | VN vs OM | ||||||
Vitamin B12 (µg/d) | 71.4 (5.5–333.5)1,2 | 1.3 (0.6–6.1)1 | 1.6 (1.1–2.6)2 | 0.7 | < 0.0001 | 0.366 | 0.521 |
Vitamin D (µg/d) | 12.9 (3.7–25.1)1,2 | 2.1 (0.6–13.0)1 | 1.7 (0.6–12.9)2 | 10 | < 0.0001 | 0.230 | 0.305 |
Fatty acid and cholesterol intake
VN (n = 139) | VG (n = 127) | OM (n = 164) | Basic model∆ | Fully adjusted model‡ | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p | Partial η2 | p | Partial η2 | ||||
Total fat (E%)a | 33.6 (27.9–39.4)1 | 33.7 (29.7–36.6)1 | 32.6 (28.2–37.2)1 | 0.781 | 0.001 | < 0.0001 | 0.049 |
Total SFA (E%)b | 9.1 (6.4–12.6)1 | 11.9 (9.5–15.1)1 | 14.0 (11.6–17.4)1 | < 0.0001 | 0.199 | < 0.0001 | 0.261 |
Total MUFA (E%)c | 12.1 (9.6–14.9) | 11.3 (9.3–13.4) | 10.9 (9.2–12.6) | 0.011 | 0.021 | 0.903 | 0.001 |
Total PUFA (E%)d | 8.7 (7.2–10.5)1 | 6.9 (5.3–8.5)1 | 4.5 (3.7–5.6)1 | < 0.0001 | 0.431 | < 0.0001 | 0.389§ |
18:2n-6 (LA) (E%)e | 7.0 (6.1–8.1)1 | 5.8 (4.4–6.9)1 | 3.6 (3.0–4.6)1 | < 0.0001 | 0.420 | < 0.0001 | 0.384§ |
18:3n-3 (ALA) (E%)f | 1.0 (0.7–2.0)1 | 0.7 (0.5–1.2)1 | 0.6 (0.4–0.8)1 | < 0.001 | 0.184 | < 0.0001 | 0.185 |
LA:ALAg | 7.0 (3.9–9.9) | 6.7 (4.6–9.5) | 6.3 (4.8–7.8) | 0.070 | 0.013 | 0.018 | 0.020 |
20:4n-6 (AA) (mg/d)h | 7.2 (2.6–16.3)1 | 12.0 (5.4–21.7)1 | 34.3 (21.9–54.6)1 | < 0.0001 | 0.370 | < 0.0001 | 0.514§ |
20:5n-3 (EPA) (mg/d)i | 3.8 (0.9–8.6)1 | 1.4 (0.4–5.2)2 | 10.7 (4.3–46.5)1,2 | < 0.0001 | 0.316 | < 0.0001 | 0.349 |
22:6n-3 (DHA) (mg/d)j | 18.4 (6.0–38.3)1 | 16.6 (6.0–30.9)1 | 35.4 (15.6–82.2)1 | < 0.0001 | 0.133 | < 0.0001 | 0.222§ |
Cholesterol (mg/4.184 MJ/d)k | 15.0 (0.3–76.3)1 | 54.0 (20.4–117.4)1 | 91.8 (58.9–145.3)1 | < 0.0001 | 0.237 | < 0.0001 | 0.493 |