Review
Pathophysiology
Brain signaling and microglial activation
Endothelial activation and blood–brain barrier dysfunction
Deficit in cholinergic function and alteration of neurotransmission
Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis
Prolonged inflammation and other systemic insults
Selective vulnerability
Diagnosis
Clinical examination
Clinical examination
Brain imaging
Brain MRI findings | References |
---|---|
Acute changes
| |
Cytotoxic edema (hippocampus, cortex) ischemic lesions | |
Vasogenic edema | |
Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) | |
Chronic changes observed in survivors
| |
White matter disruption | [71] |
Brain atrophy | |
(frontal cortex, hippocampus) |
Electroencephalography
Electroencephalographic findings | Association with adverse outcome | References |
---|---|---|
Normal EEG | 0 | [76] |
Theta (mild generalized slowing) | + | [76] |
Delta (severe slowing) | + | [76] |
Triphasic waves | + | [76] |
Periodic epileptiform discharges | + | |
Electrographic seizures | ++ | [73] |
Generalized suppression or burst-suppression | +++ |
Causes of encephalopathy requiring specific treatment
Agent | Mechanism of action |
---|---|
Benzodiazepines
| CNS sedation, neuronal inhibition by membrane hyperpolarization (GABA-agonist) |
(long- and short-acting) | |
Opioids
| Anticholinergic toxicity, CNS sedation, fecal impaction |
Antibiotics
| Inhibition of GABA-A receptors |
Penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, Quinolones | |
Antiarrhythmics
| Strong anticholinergic effects, sodium channel blockage, unknown |
Flecaïne, Amiodarone, Digoxin | |
Beta-blockers
| Not yet described, association with delirium |
Diuretics
| Dehydration and electrolyte disturbances |
Steroids
| Anticholinergic toxicity, Increase of catecholamine activity, GABA-agonist, altered serotonin activity |
Inhaled anesthetics
| Beta-amyloïd protein generation, cytotoxicity of beta-amyloïd potentiating, apoptosis-inducing |
Ketamine
| NMDA-antagonism |
Histamine-2 blocking agents
| Anticholinergic toxicity |
Cimetidine | |
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
| Blood–brain-barrier permeability |
Anticholinergics
| Anticholinergic toxicity |
oxybutynin, bladder antispasmodics | |
Anticonvulsants
| CNS Sedation |
phenobarbital, phenytoin | |
Antiparkinsonian agents
| Dopaminergic toxicity |
L-Dopa, dopamine agonists, amantadine | |
Antidepressants
| Anticholinergic toxicity |
(amitriptyline, imipramine, doxepin) |
Outcomes
Therapeutic perspectives
Pharmacological measures | Type of study | References | |
---|---|---|---|
Reduce use of benzodiazepines and opioids | Observational studies | ||
Perform daily sedation stops | RCT | ||
Use dexmedetomidine (versus benzodiazepines or propofol) as sedative | RCT | ||
Pain assessment: sedation – analgesia – delirium protocol | Observational studies | ||
Prevention of metabolic disturbances (severe hypoxemia, fever, dysnatremia(s), prolonged hyperglycemia…) | Observational studies | ||
Nonpharmacological measures
| |||
Sleep protocol | RCT (non-critical care setting) | [102] | |
Reorientation and cognitively stimulating activities | |||
Rehydration | |||
Use of eyeglasses, magnifying lenses, and hearing aids | |||
Avoid use of physical restraints | Observational studies | ||
Early mobilization | RCT | [104] |