Background
Methods
Participants
Outcome measures
Short-term effects
Further usability assessments
Measure | Subscale | No VRa | Semi-immersive VRa (monitor) | Immersive VRa (HMD) | p | Cohen’s d | t | F |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Moodb | 7.00 (1.66) | 7.61 (1.25) | 8.39 (1.15) | < .001* | 21.38 | |||
Motivationb | 6.89 (2.29) | 7.28 (1.78) | 8.42 (1.38) | < .001* | 11.98 | |||
IMI | Interest/Enjoyment | 4.63 (1.15) | 5.78 (0.96) | < .001* | 1.29 | − 7.73 | ||
Perceived Competence | 4.81 (0.85) | 5.18 (0.78) | .002* | 0.42 | − 3.42 | |||
Effort/ Importance | 3.89 (1.29) | 4.24 (1.20) | .041* | 0.36 | − 2.12 | |||
Pressure/ Tension | 2.01 (0.69) | 1.84 (0.84) | .113 | 0.27 | 1.63 | |||
Sense of timec | 4.25 (2.38) | 6.64 (1.57) | 7.89 (1.33) | < .001 (GG− corrected)* | 52.15 | |||
VR-questionsd | “The virtual environment was motivating for me” | 7.5 (1.65) | 8.53 (1.36) | < .001* | 0.78 | − 4.67 | ||
“I felt present in the virtual environment” | 5.72 (1.95) | 8.06 (1.37) | < .001* | 1.10 | − 6.59 | |||
“I paid attention to my natural gait during the treadmill training” | 5.64 (2.38) | 5.28 (2.17) | .344 | 0.16 | 0.96 | |||
IPQ | Spatial Presence | − 0.58 (0.88) | 1.11 (0.53) | < .001* | 2.00 | − 12.01 | ||
Involvement | − 0.39 (0.78) | 0.78 (0.56) | < .001* | 1.43 | − 8.58 | |||
Experienced Realism | − 1.31 (0.78) | − 0.24 (1.71) | < .001* | 1.06 | − 6.33 | |||
General | − 1.00 (1.71) | 1.47 (1.21) | < .001* | 1.37 | − 8.26 | |||
SSQ | Nausea | 10.34 (11.49) | 15.37 (11.47) | .014* | 0.43 | − 2.57 | ||
Oculomotor | 12.63 (14.61) | 12.84 (19.58) | .895 | 0.02 | − .13 | |||
Disorientation | 10.83 (17.00) | 17.40 (26.07) | .061 | 0.32 | − 1.94 | |||
Total | 13.19 (13.34) | 17.04 (18.46) | .068 | 0.31 | − 1.88 | |||
RTLX | Mental Demand | 3.19 (4.95) | 7.78 (7.79) | 12.08 (11.17) | < .001* | 15.75 | ||
Physical Demand | 10.69 (9.80) | 13.61 (12.91) | 15.00 (14.19) | .041* | 3.35 | |||
Temporal Demand | 6.53 (7.82) | 10.83 (14.12) | 9.44 (15.30) | .156 | 1.91 | |||
Effort | 17.36 (23.89) | 15.14 (21.40) | 15.69 (26.68) | .752 | .29 | |||
Performance | 9.72 (9.02) | 13.19 (13.48) | 12.50 (14.47) | .080 | 2.63 | |||
Frustration | 6.67 (8.62) | 6.11 (9.42) | 3.19 (7.09) | .083 | 2.58 | |||
Borg Scale | 8.47 (1.63) | 9.08 (1.81) | 8.92 (2.17) | .207 | 1.61 | |||
SUS | Total | 83.68 (9.36) | 83.75 (10.03) | .965 | < 0.01 | − .05 |
Measure | Subscale | No VRa | Semi-immersive VRa (monitor) | Immersive VRa (HMD) | p | Cohen’s d | t | F |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Moodb | 8.29 (1.20) | 8.38 (1.61) | 8.71 (1.49) | .580 | 0.56 | |||
Motivationb | 8.36 (1.15) | 8.08 (1.32)e | 8.50 (2.31) | .618 | 0.49 | |||
IMI | Interest/Enjoyment | 4.38 (0.89) | 4.76 (0.49) | .212 | 0.35 | − 1.31 | ||
Perceived Competence | 4.36 (0.96) | 4.57 (1.33) | .336 | − 0.27 | − 1 | |||
Effort/ Importance | 3.26 (1.41) | 3.47 (1.10) | .637 | 0.13 | − 0.48 | |||
Pressure/ Tension | 3.34 (0.56) | 3.43 (0.51) | .708 | 0.10 | − 0.38 | |||
Sense of timec | 8.43 (1.99) | 8.00 (2.88) | 8.00 (1.92) | .800 | .23 | |||
VR-questionsd | “The virtual environment was motivating for me” | 7.50 (2.93) | 8.43 (2.31) | .202 | 0.36 | − 1.34 | ||
“I felt present in the virtual environment” | 5.86 (3.11) | 7.64 (2.10) | .032* | 0.64 | − 2.41 | |||
“I paid attention to my natural gait during the treadmill training” | 4.50 (3.61) | 4.79 (3.04) | 5.93 (3.67) | .281 | 1.33 | |||
IPQ | Spatial Presence | − 0.44 (1.44) | 1.03 (0.94) | .008* | 0.83 | − 3.12 | ||
Involvement | − 0.34 (0.85) | 0.63 (0.84) | .009* | 0.81 | − 3.06 | |||
Experienced Realism | − 0.70 (1.01) | 0.07 (1.15) | .001* | 1.18 | − 4.39 | |||
General | − 1.21 (2.01) | 0.79 (2.12) | .003* | 0.98 | − 3.67 | |||
SSQf | Nausea | 7.50 (8.52) | 10.90 (12.88) | |||||
Oculomotor | 10.29 (14.45) | 11.37 (11.80) | ||||||
Disorientation | 5.97 (10.52) | 10.94 (14.63) | ||||||
Total | 9.62 (12.16) | 12.82 (11.98) | ||||||
RTLX | Mental Demand | 5.71 (8.29) | 10.00 (15.57) | 17.14 (18.37) | .014* | 5.06 | ||
Physical Demand | 10.36 (13.79) | 20.71 (17.31) | 21.79 (20.53) | .030* | 4.05 | |||
Temporal Demand | 6.43 (12.16) | 12.86 (15.53) | 11.43 (11.10) | .057 | 3.20 | |||
Effort | 15.71 (17.64) | 18.21 (20.90) | 19.29 (21.91) | .737 | 0.31 | |||
Performance | 11.07 (13.47) | 21.43 (21.16) | 21.43 (22.82) | .114 | 2.36 | |||
Frustration | 2.14 (5.79) | 5.36 (8.87) | 4.29 (7.30) | .295 (GG-corrected) | 1.23 | |||
Borg Scale | 8.57 (1.60) | 9.79 (2.55) | 9.71 (2.73) | .075 | 2.86 | |||
SUS | Total | 84.29 (14.29) | 83.21 (18.28) | .830 | .06 | .22 |
Acceptance and satisfaction
VR-System
VR-Environment
Procedure
Statistical analysis
Results
Short-term effects: Walking speed and heart rate
Condition | Pre | Post | Differencea | 95% CI of the difference | t | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Healthy participants | No VR | 87 (9) | 95 (9) | 8 (13) | [4, 12] | 3.7 | .001* |
Semi-immersive VR | 88 (10) | 91 (11) | 3 (13) | [8, − 1] | 1.6 | .122 | |
Immersive VR | 89 (8) | 91 (14) | 2 (15) | [7, − 3] | 0.8 | .432 | |
Patients | No VR | 75 (17) | 84 (18) | 9 (18) | [− 1, 19] | 1.9 | .082 |
Semi-immersive VR | 74 (17) | 77 (23) | 3 (18) | [− 7, 13] | 0.7 | .524 | |
Immersive VR | 79 (21) | 77 (13) | − 2 (19) | [− 12, 9] | -0.3 | .747 |