Background
Current understanding of the mechanisms of CRS
Trial | N | Target | Costimu-latory domain | CR (%) | Overall survival rate | CRS and ICANS grading criteria | CRS (%) | Severe CRS* (%) | ICANS (%) | Severe ICANS* (%) | Toxicity related mortality | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ALL | ||||||||||||
Maude et al. 2014 | 30 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 27(90) | 78% (6 m) | CTCAE† | 30(100) | 8(27) | 13(43) | NR | 0 | [31] |
Lee et al. 2015 | 20 | CD19 | CD28 | 14(70) | 50% (12 m) | CTCAE† | 16(80) | 6(30) | 6(30) | 1(5) | 0 | [30] |
Turtle et al. 2016 | 30 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 27(93) | NR | CTCAE† | 25(83) | 7(23) | 15(50) | 15(50) | 1 CRS 1 ICANS | [84] |
Gardner et al. 2017 | 43 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 40(93) | 69.5% (12 m) | CTCAE† | 40(93) | 10(23) | 21(49) | 9(21) | 0 | [205] |
Maude et al. 2018 | 75 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 61(81) | 76% (12 m) | PENN/CHOP CTCAE | 58(77)P | 35(46) | 30(40)C | 10(13) | 1 ICANS | [206] |
Park et al. 2018 | 53 | CD19 | CD28 | 44(83) | 50% (12.9 m) | MSKCC CTCAE | 45(85)M | 14(26) | 23(44)C | 22(42) | 1 CRS | [117] |
Frey et al. 2020 | 35 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 24(69) | 50% (19.1 m) | PENN/CHOP CTCAE | 33(94)P | 6(17) | 14(40)C | 2(6) | 3 CRS | [109] |
Fry et al. 2018 | 21 | CD22 | 4-1BB | 12(57) | NR | CTCAE† | 16(76) | 0(0) | 6(28) | 0(0) | 0 | [80] |
Shah et al. 2020 | 58 | CD22 | 4-1BB | 40(70) | 50% (13.4 m) | Lee CTCAE ASTCT | 50(86)L | 5(10)L 12(24)A | 19(33)C | 1(2) | 0 | [81] |
NHL | ||||||||||||
Turtle et al. 2016 | 32 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 11(34) | ‡ | CTCAE† | 20(63) | 4(13) | 9(28) | 9(28) | 1 ICANS | [85] |
Schuster et al. 2017 | 28 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 16(57) | 57% (28.6 m)§ | PENN/CHOP CTCAE | 16(57)P | 5(18) | 11(39)C | 3(11) | 1 ICANS | [87] |
Neelapu et al. 2017 | 101 | CD19 | CD28 | 55(54) | 52% (18 m) | Lee CTCAE | 94(93)L | 13(13) | 65(64)C | 28(28) | 2 CRS | [89] |
Schuster et al. 2019 | 111 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 37(40) | 50% (12 m) | PENN/CHOP CTCAE | 64(58)P | 24(22) | 23(21)C | 13(12) | 0 | [118] |
Abramson et al. 2020 | 269 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 136(53) | 58% (12 m) | Lee CTCAE | 113(42)L | 6(2) | 80(30)C | 27(10) | 0 | [207] |
MCL | ||||||||||||
Wang et al. 2020 | 68 | CD19 | CD28 | 40(67) | 83% (12 m) | Lee CTCAE | 62(91)L | 10(15) | 43(63)C | 21(31) | 0 | [208] |
MM | ||||||||||||
Brudno et al. 2018 | 16 | BCMA | CD28 | 10(63) | 50% (7.1 m)¶ | Lee | 15(94)L | 6(38) | NR | NR | NR | [209] |
Zhao et al. 2018 | 57 | BCMA | 4-1BB | 39(68) | 50% (15 m)§ | Lee CTCAE | 51(90)L | 4(7) | 1(2)C | 0(0) | NR | [210] |
Cohen et al. 2019 | 25 | BCMA | 4-1BB | 2(8) | 50% (502d) | PENN/CHOP CTCAE | 22(88)P | 8(32) | 8(32)C | 3(12) | 0 | [211] |
Raje et al. 2019 | 33 | BCMA | 4-1BB | 15(45) | 50% (11.8 m)§ | Lee CTCAE | 25(76)L | 2(6) | 14(42)C | 1(3) | 0 | [212] |
Munshi et al. 2021 | 128 | BCMA | 4-1BB | 42(33) | 78% (12 m) | Lee CTCAE | 107(84)L | 7(5) | 23(18)C | 4(3) | 1 CRS | [213] |
CLL | ||||||||||||
Porter et al. 2015 | 14 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 4(29) | 50% (29 m) | CTCAE† | 9(64) | 6(43) | 6(43) | 1(7) | 0 | [214] |
Turtle et al. 2017 | 24 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 4(21) | 50% (6.6 m) | Lee CTCAE† | 20(83)L | 2(8) | 8(33)C† | 6(25) | 1 CRS and ICANS | [86] |
Frey et al. 2020 | 38 | CD19 | 4-1BB | 9(28) | 50% (64 m) | PENN/CHOP CTCAE ASTCT | 24(63)P 23(59)A | 9(24) 4(11) | 3(8)C | 0(0) | 0 | [215] |
CRS | ICANS | |
---|---|---|
Symptoms & Signs | Onset: Fever with other constitutional symptoms (myalgias, malaise, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, etc.) Progression: Hypotension, hypoxia, tachycardia, tachypnea, arrhythmia, pleural effusion, capillary leak, coagulopathy, pulmonary edema, DIC and multiorgan failure [7, 155, 216] Accompanied infections [217] L-CRS (in NHL): Local swelling and redness [43] | Onset: Somnolence, disorientation, inattention, tremor, expressive aphasia, dysgraphia and apraxia [84, 218] Progression: |
Timing | Onset: 1–9 days after CAR T-cells infusion Duration: | Onset: 2–9 days after CAR T-cells infusion Duration: |
Cytokine profile | Serum: IFN-γ, IL-15, IL-6, IL-10, GM-CSF, IL-1RA, IL-2, IP-10 IL-1β, IL-8, and TNF | |
Risk factors | Patient Characters: Disease type (ALL), high disease burden, preexisting thrombocytopenia and endothelial activation Characters of CAR T-cell products: | Patient Characters: CRS, disease type (ALL), high disease burden, preexisting thrombocytopenia and endothelial activation, preexisting neurologic comorbidities Characters of CAR T-cell products: |
Grading criteria* | •Temperature ≥ 38.0 °C •Hypotension (based on vasopressor) •Hypoxia | •ICE score (for adults and children> 12 years) or CAPD (for children≤12 years) •Depressed level of consciousness •Seizures •Motor findings •Elevated intracranial pressure/cerebral edema |
Management | •Antipyretics, IV hydration, anti-infective treatment •Tocilizumab, corticosteroids •ICU treatment, vasopressor support, supplemental O2 [224] •Symptomatic treatment for L-CRS (e.g. drainage of serous effusion, airway protection, regulation of intestinal flora) [43] | •Supportive management •EEG, neuroimaging •Tocilizumab (only when concurrent with CRS), corticosteroids, anti-epileptics drugs •ICU treatment, airway protection, specific neurointensive treatment [224] |
CAR T-cell activation and pyroptotic target cells: the root factor
Activated macrophages: the key mediator
IL-6 and endothelial cell activation: the final core pathway
Current understanding of the mechanisms of ICANS
Brain vascular endothelial activation and BBB disruption
Dysfunction of other components of the BBB and inflammation amplification
Inflammatory cellular infiltrates and neuronal dysfunction
Prevention and management of toxicities
Optimization of the infusion dose
Optimization of the CAR structure
Elimination switches
Anticytokine agents
Targeting IL-6
Agent | Target | Application | Mechanism | Stage and clinical trial |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tocilizumab | IL-6 | CRS | Blocking IL-6R, inhibiting IL-6, the key cytokine of the CRS | FDA-approved first-line agent for severe CRS [143] |
Siltuximab | IL-6 | CRS ICANS | Blocking IL-6 | Clinical trial [152] |
Corticosteroids | NA | CRS ICANS | Non-specific anti-inflammatory effects to suppress immune cells | First-line agent for severe and isolated ICANS [156] |
Anakinra | IL-1 | CRS ICANS | Blocking IL-1, an important cytokine in CRS and ICANS | Ongoing trials: NCT04148430, NCT04150913, NCT04205838, NCT04432506, NCT04359784, NCT03430011, NCT04227275 |
Lenzilumab | GM-CSF | CRS ICANS | Blocking GM-CSF and inhibiting myeloid cells and T cells entering CNS | Ongoing trial: NCT04314843 |
Ruxolitinib | JAK1/2 | CRS | Broadly inhibiting JAK-STAT pathways, the downstream of multiple cytokines | Clinical trial [175] |
Itacitinib | JAK1 | CRS | Selectively inhibiting the JAK-STAT pathways | Ongoing trial: NCT04071366 |
Dasatinib | TK | CRS | Blocking the adenosine triphosphate binding sites of LCK, reversibly inhibiting the activation of CAR T-cells | Ongoing trial: NCT04603872 |
Ibrutinib | ITK | CRS ICANS | Inhibiting the ITK-induced cytokine release of T cells, monocytes and tumor cells | Ongoing trials: NCT04234061, NCT03331198, NCT03310619, NCT04640909, NCT03570892 |
Metyrosine | Catecholamine | CRS | Blocking tyrosine hydroxylase to inhibit the synthesis of catecholamine | Preclinical [28] |
ANP | Catecholamine | CRS | Inhibiting cytokine secretion | Preclinical [28] |
Etanercept | TNF-α | CRS | Blocking TNF-α, an important cytokine in CRS | |
Adalimumab | TNF-α | CRS ICANS | Blocking TNF-α | Preclinical, administered with anti-IL-1β antibody [194] |
Extracorporeal cytokine removal Plasma exchange Hemofiltration | NA | CRS ICANS | Removal of pro-inflammatory mediators from the blood | Ongoing trial: NCT04048434 |
TO-207 | mRNA 3′-end | CRS | An mRNA 3′-end processing antagonist, inhibiting the secretion of multiple cytokines | Preclinical [196] |
THZ1 | CDK7 | CRS | Suppressing a set of inflammatory genes, mainly STAT and IL-1 | Preclinical [197] |