Since TZD treatment improves insulin resistance and decreases many cardiovascular risk factors, it had been proposed that treatment of patients at high risk for cardiovascular events with TZDs might have a beneficial effect in reducing long-term cardiovascular events. Clinical studies have examined the effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone on cardiovascular outcomes, and several meta-analyses and large database analyses have compared their relative cardiovascular outcomes.
Pioglitazone
The PROactive (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In Macrovascular Events) trial randomized 5238 patients with T2D and evidence of macrovascular disease between May 2001 and April 2002 into a controlled, double-blind, cardiovascular outcome trial with pioglitazone titrated 15 to 45 mg/day or placebo [
40••]. The primary endpoint was a composite of all-cause mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction (including silent myocardial infarction), stroke, acute coronary syndrome, endovascular or surgical intervention in coronary or leg arteries, and amputation above the knee. After an average duration of 34.5 months, pioglitazone failed to meet the primary endpoint of a reduction in at least one those composite hard or soft cardiovascular endpoints (hazard ratio (HR) 0.90,
p = 0.095). There was a significant reduction in the main secondary endpoint of all-cause mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction (excluding silent myocardial infarctions), and stroke (HR = 0.84,
p = 0.027) [
40••]. Pioglitazone caused a significant increase in hospitalization for heart failure (149 vs. 108 placebo-treated patients,
p = 0.007); however, mortality rates for heart failure did not differ from the placebo group. The results of the PROactive study were extensively debated because of the inclusion of so many diverse components in the primary endpoint, the exclusion of silent myocardial infarctions in some analyses, and differences in numbers of events in the primary and secondary analyses. Some reviewers claimed that the results showed a significant decrease in cardiovascular outcomes, and others argued that the design and statistical analyses were flawed, and the conclusions reached by the investigators were invalid. One finding that everybody agreed upon was that pioglitazone increased the incidence of hospitalizations but not the mortality for congestive heart failure. Weight gain (pioglitazone 3.6 kg vs. placebo − 0.4 kg) and peripheral edema (pioglitazone 562 patients vs. placebo 341 patients) were increased in the pioglitazone-treated population as was expected from its known side effects [
40••].
While the data do not prove conclusively that pioglitazone reduces cardiovascular events, the data are consistent with a benefit. The weakness in the PROactive study lies in the endpoint assumptions made. It should be noted that this was the first major cardiovascular outcome study evaluating a single antidiabetic treatment.
The results of two recent, large, well-designed trials have provided new meaningful data on the effects of pioglitazone on cardiovascular outcomes. The Insulin Resistance Intervention after Stroke (IRIS) trial, which was a multicenter, double-blind trial that investigated the effect of pioglitazone on future cardiovascular events in patients who had insulin resistance and had had a recent ischemic stroke or a transient ischemic attack [
41••]. Three thousand eight hundred seventy-six participants without diabetes were treated with pioglitazone 45 mg or a placebo. Insulin resistance was defined as a measured Homeostasis Model Assessment, HOMA-IR > 3.0. The primary outcome was fatal or non-fatal stroke or myocardial infarction. By 4.8 years, 175 of 1939 (9.0%) patients treated with pioglitazone and 228 of 1937 (11.8%) placebo-treated patients had a primary event. The HR for pioglitazone treatment was 0.76 (95% CI 0.62–0.93). Diabetes developed in 73 participants (3.8%) receiving pioglitazone and 149 participants (7.7%) receiving placebo, HR = 0.48,
p = 0.001. No significant difference occurred in all-cause mortality (HR = 0.93). Pioglitazone therapy was associated with an increase in weight gain > 4.5 kg (52.2% vs. 33.7%),
p < 0.001; edema 35.6% vs. 24.9%,
p < 0.001; and bone fractures requiring surgery or hospitalization 5.1% vs. 3.2%,
p = 0.003 [
41••].
The TOSCA-IT study was a large multicenter trial which evaluated the cardiovascular outcomes of the long-term effect of adding pioglitazone vs. a sulfonylurea to patients with T2D inadequately controlled on monotherapy with metformin [
42]. From September 18, 2008, to January 15, 2014, 3028 patients inadequately controlled with metformin were randomized to add either pioglitazone (15 to 45 mg) or a sulfonylurea (5–15 mg glibenclamide, 2–6 mg glimepiride, or 30–120 mg gliclazide). The study was unblinded, but adjudicators were blinded. Primary outcome was a composite of all-cause mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, or urgent coronary revascularization. Of the 1493 participants randomized to sulfonylureas, 24 were taking glibenclamide, 723 glimepiride, and 745 gliclazide. At baseline, 335 (11%) had had a previous cardiovascular event. The study was stopped at a mean follow-up of 57.3 months because of the lack of any difference in the primary endpoint (pioglitazone 105 participants, 1.5 events/100 person-years; sulfonylureas 108 participants, 1.5 events/100 person-years, HR = 0.96,
p = 0.79). Hypoglycemia occurred in 148 (10%) participants in the pioglitazone group and in 508 (34%) participants in the sulfonylurea group. Weight gain < 2 kg on average occurred in both groups. Rates of heart failure, bladder cancer, and fractures were not significantly different between groups [
42]. It is of interest that the results of TOSCA-IT and RECORD are very similar, and raise the possibility that the results of cardiovascular outcome studies may differ depending on whether the comparator is placebo or an active antihyperglycemic agent [
42,
43•].
The effects of pioglitazone in patients with previous strokes or transient ischemic attacks has been further investigated by subanalysis of previous clinical trials or meta-analyses of several studies. In the PROACTIVE study, a subanalysis was done of the 486 pioglitazone-treated patients and the 498 placebo-treated patients that had had a previous stroke [
44]. Pioglitazone reduced fatal and non-fatal stroke 5.6% vs. placebo 10.2%,
p = 0.0085; HR 0.53, and the composite cardiovascular endpoint of cardiovascular death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, and non-fatal stroke 13.0% vs. placebo 17.7%,
p = 0.0467; HR = 0.72 [
44]. In a secondary analysis of the IRIS trial, patients were stratified above and below the median for risk for stroke and myocardial infarction at baseline [
45]. The efficacy of pioglitazone for preventing stroke or myocardial infarction and for safety (death, heart failure, weight gain, and fracture) was determined for each stratum. In the low-risk stratum, the risk for pioglitazone-treated participants was 6.0% and for placebo-treated participants 7.9%. The absolute difference was − 1.9% (95% CI = −4.4 to 0.6%). Among higher risk patients, pioglitazone 14.7% placebo 19.6% with an absolute difference of − 4.9% (95% CI = −8.6 to 1.2), HR = 0.77 vs. 0.75 [
45]. Pioglitazone increased weight more in higher risk patients. Fracture risk was greatest in the high-risk group [
45].
Meta-analysis of 3 studies with 4980 participants showed that pioglitazone treatment in participants with insulin resistance, prediabetes, and diabetes had a lower risk of recurrent stroke, HR = 0.68,
p = 0.01, and of future major vascular events, HR = 0.75,
p = 0.0001. There was no evidence of an effect on all-cause mortality, and heart failure [
46].
Many small trials have investigated the effects of pioglitazone on cardiovascular endpoints or their surrogates. These studies by themselves are not powered enough or of long enough duration to provide significant information about clinical cardiovascular outcomes. They have been included in systemic reviews and meta-analyses. However, the analyses in these reviews and meta-analyses are dominated by the data from the 9114 subjects from the PROactive and IRIS studies and therefore provide little additional information. An exception is the PERISCOPE study which measured coronary atheroma volume by intravascular ultrasonography in a double-blind, randomized trial of pioglitazone 15 to 45 mg vs. glimepiride 1 to 4 mg in participants with type 2 diabetes [
47]. After 18 months, percent atheroma volume decreased 0.16% in the pioglitazone-treated participants and increased 0.73% in the glimepiride-treated participants (
p = 0.002) [
47]. These data along with several other studies showing that pioglitazone decreased coronary restenosis after a stent placement indicate that pioglitazone decreases the rate of coronary atherosclerosis.
Rosiglitazone
Several early clinical trials involving rosiglitazone treatment of participants with prediabetes or T2D showed an imbalance of more cardiovascular events in the rosiglitazone arm compared with placebo. In 2000, the European Regulatory Agency requested a post-marketing study of long-term cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in participants with T2D treated with rosiglitazone (RECORD study). In 2007, Nissen and Wolski published a meta-analysis of 42 clinical trials which showed that rosiglitazone increased myocardial infarction (odds ratio (OR) = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.03–1.98,
p = 0.03) and death from cardiovascular causes (OR = 1.64, 95% CI = 0.98–2.74,
p = 0.060) compared with the control group [
37]. Another meta-analysis published the same year involving 14,291 participants from 4 clinical trials reported that rosiglitazone increased myocardial infarctions (RR = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.06–1.93,
p = 0.02) and heart failure (RR = 2.09, 95% CI = 1.52–2.88,
p < 0.001) compared with the control groups [
38]. No increased risk of cardiovascular mortality was found (RR = 0.90,
p = 0.53) [
38].These publications and the results of several other meta-analyses and database analyses served to raise significant safety concerns about rosiglitazone, and the US FDA assembled several advisory board meetings to review rosiglitazone safety data and make recommendations. An advisory board in July 2007 voted 20:3 that the evidence indicated that rosiglitazone increased the risk of cardiovascular events and 22:1 that the overall risk benefit ratio justified its continuing marketing [
48,
49]. Despite the publication of RECORD which showed no differences in cardiovascular events or death from rosiglitazone treatment compared with metformin or sulfonylurea treatments, the European Marketing Authority recommended removal of rosiglitazone from the European market on September 23, 2010 [
50,
51•,
52•].
A retrospective analysis comparing rosiglitazone to pioglitazone in 2010 concluded that rosiglitazone was associated with an increased risk of composite cardiovascular events (acute myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, or death) (HR = 1.18, 95% CI = 1.12–1.23) compared with pioglitazone in patients 65 years or older [
53]. In 2011, under continuing pressure, the US FDA placed very stringent requirements for the use of rosiglitazone in the USA which virtually abolished its use (10,000 US patients used it in 2012) [
54]. In June 2013, another FDA panel reviewed all available data including re-adjudicated RECORD trial data and found no evidence of increased cardiovascular risk with Avandia (rosiglitazone) and voted to remove the restrictions on Avandia marketing in the USA [
55]. The FDA removed the restrictions in November 2013, but rosiglitazone use had virtually stopped.
RECORD was an exception to most cardiovascular outcome studies in that it was a comparative study of rosiglitazone vs. an active treatment. The design of PROACTIVE and the GLP-1 receptor agonists and SGLT-2 inhibitors cardiovascular outcome studies compared the pharmacologic drug to a placebo control. The FDA and GlaxoSmithKline agreed that a large randomized, controlled trial of rosiglitazone compared with pioglitazone and placebo on major cardiovascular outcomes (MACE) was necessary to definitively determine the effects of rosiglitazone on cardiovascular outcomes. The TZD study design was to randomize 16,000 participants with T2D to rosiglitazone, pioglitazone, or placebo and follow them for non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, or death due to cardiovascular causes for approximately 5.5 years [
56]. The trial was stopped prematurely on July 21, 2010, after 162 days because of the regulatory issues related to rosiglitazone from FDA Advisory Committee recommendations and a US Senate report in May 2010 [
56].
Secondary analyses of the BARI-2D trial which evaluated outcomes of bypass angioplasty revascularization in which patients were treated with rosiglitazone for a mean of 4.5 years reported that neither on treatment nor propensity-matched analysis supported an association of rosiglitazone treatment with an increase in major ischemic cardiovascular events [
57]. A secondary analysis of the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial reported that rosiglitazone use was associated with decreased risk of the primary cardiovascular composite outcome and cardiovascular death [
58]. Rosiglitazone did not lead to a higher risk of myocardial infarction.
Several studies were designed to evaluate the effects of rosiglitazone on specific aspects of coronary artery disease. In an 18-month study of 672 subjects with T2D and at least 1 atherosclerotic plaque with luminal narrowing in a coronary artery who were randomized to rosiglitazone or glipizide, there was no significant difference in percent atheroma volume (95% CI = − 1.46–0.17
p = 0.12) [
59]. In a controlled, randomized study of 83 participants with diabetes who had percutaneous coronary artery stent placement, rosiglitazone significantly reduced restenosis at 6 months compared with the control treatment (17.6 vs. 38.2%,
p = 0.030) [
60]. Baseline and follow-up glucose and lipid levels between the two groups were not different but rosiglitazone treatment reduced high-sensitivity CRP concentration. The effects of rosiglitazone vs. placebo with standard treatment on echocardiographic function and cardiac status of 224 participants with T2D with left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≤ 45% and New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class I or II heart failure were evaluated in a randomized study [
61]. LVEF was similar between the groups at baseline and after 52 weeks of treatment. Rosiglitazone treatment resulted in better glycemic control (HbA1c − 0.65%), worsening edema and increased congestive heart failure medications.