Introduction
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are neurodegenerative diseases that share clinical, genetic, and pathologic hallmarks [
50]. In recent years, mutations in a number of RNA binding proteins (RBPs) have been discovered in ALS/FTD, highlighting RNA-centric mechanisms in disease [
62]. Of note, TDP-43 (encoded by the
TARDBP gene) was identified as the primary component of ubiquitinated inclusions in ALS cases and a subset of FTD cases [
40]. As an RBP, TDP-43 has been found to mediate a number of pathways related to RNA metabolism [
28].
Recent investigations have revealed factors that may mediate TDP-43 associated ALS/FTD. An intermediate length polyglutamine repeat expansion (PolyQ) within another RBP, Ataxin-2
, was defined as a risk factor for ALS that enhances the toxicity of TDP-43 [
15]. Further, in genetic cases of familial ALS and FTD with TDP-43 pathology (FTD-TDP), a GGGGCC hexanucleotide repeat expansion (termed G4C2) in
C9orf72 was identified as the most common mutation [
13,
42]. Interestingly, mice expressing expanded G4C2 have TDP-43 pathology [
7]. Links between TDP-43 and G4C2 may converge on RNA metabolism as G4C2 expansions contribute to disruptions in various aspects of RNA processes [
2,
27,
59,
61]. Altogether, accumulating studies strongly point to altered RNA biology as a critical component of disease etiology in ALS and FTD [
9,
21].
Here, using a directed screen aimed at RNA-interacting proteins in
Drosophila, we identified that
RNA and export factor binding protein 1 (
Ref1), an orthologue of human
ALYREF (also known as
THOC4), modulates toxicity associated with TDP-43, TDP-43 with Ataxin-2, and G4C2. ALYREF is a component of the TRanscription and EXport (TREX) complex, a conserved complex that links transcription and processing of mRNAs to their export from the nucleus into the cytoplasm [
20,
23,
48,
63]. Impaired nucleocytoplasmic shuttling has been identified as a major pathway impacted in C9+ ALS/FTD [
8,
16,
43,
60]. Evidence also suggests that ALYREF may play a more direct role in transcription beyond mRNA export [
5,
41,
49,
52,
58].
Using
Drosophila, we show that knockdown of
Ref1 suppresses the toxicity of multiple related ALS/FTD genes (TDP-43, TDP-43 with Ataxin-2, and G4C2), providing the first evidence that it can mediate TDP-43-associated toxicity independent of G4C2 [
16]. Further, depletion of
Ref1 using RNAi caused reductions in mRNA level and concomitant reduction in disease protein levels produced from TDP-43 and G4C2 disease genes, but not from a Tau disease gene. Interestingly, endogenous
Ref1 mRNA became upregulated in the TDP-43 and G4C2 fly models and ALYREF protein (the human
Ref1 orthologue) is upregulated by immunohistochemistry in ALS motor neurons. Upregulation is strongest in C9+ ALS cases, which harbor the G4C2 expansion and, presumably, have TDP-43 pathology [
1,
13,
38,
42], compared to C9- ALS cases, which are expected to have only TDP-43 pathology [
14,
32]. These data argue that a feed-forward loop may exist between the expression of
ALYREF and disease genes, while highlighting
ALYREF as an important disease modifier that may represent a therapeutic target of multiple co-existing disease etiologies.
Discussion
Herein, we identified that knockdown of
Ref1 is a suppressor of toxicity of TDP-43 and TDP-43 co-expressed with Ataxin-2 in a fly-based, modifier screen of 107 RNA binding proteins containing RNA recognition motifs (RRMs). Suppression of TDP-43 toxicity was associated with downregulation of TDP-43 on both the RNA and protein levels in
Ref1-depleted animals. Neither RNA nor protein expression from a control LacZ gene or an unrelated disease gene, Tau, were altered upon
Ref1 RNAi. Additional investigation revealed that
Ref1 depletion also suppressed toxicity of a related ALS/FTD mutation: the expanded G4C2 repeat (also [
16]). Significant reductions in G4C2 RNA and concomitant reductions in toxic GR-dipeptide were seen upon
Ref1 downregulation in G4C2 expressing animals. Intriguingly, expression of TDP-43 or expanded (G4C2)49 disease transgenes within the adult fly nervous system were associated with an upregulation of endogenous
Ref1 RNA, suggesting a feed-forward mechanism may be occurring. Consistent with these results, previous work on TDP-43 expressing human cells also reported ALYREF upregulation in the cytoplasmic fraction [
35]. Importantly, our data indicate that ALYREF is upregulated at the protein level in motor neurons of ALS patients, with patients bearing the expanded G4C2 repeat mutation showing significantly higher ALYREF protein levels (see Fig.
5).
ALYREF is involved in several related pathways that may lead to suppression of TDP-43 and G4C2 toxicity when depleted. As a member of the TREX complex, ALYREF is best known for its function in mediating nucleocytoplasmic transport of mRNAs [
20,
23,
48,
63]. Within this complex, ALYREF serves as an adaptor protein between mRNA and export factors NXF1/p15. Importantly, disruptions in nucleocytoplasmic transport may be a mechanism of both TDP-43- and G4C2-associated disease [
8,
16,
43]. In contrast to its role in transport, ALYREF has also been reported to mediate RNAPII-driven transcription because it interacts with a number of transcription factors and depletion of ALYREF can reduce RNAPII occupancy for a subset of genes [
20,
23,
49]. Our findings further highlight transcription as an additional mechanism underlying the role of
Ref1/
ALYREF in disease, as we see downregulation of the TDP-43 and G4C2 repeat transgene mRNA levels (see Figs.
2,
3).
Interestingly, ALYREF can bind both sense G4C2 and antisense G2C4 RNA [
10,
11,
19,
30], suggesting that an interaction between ALYREF/Ref1 and G4C2 can be direct. For TDP-43, we present the first evidence that ALYREF also modulates TDP-43-associated toxicity. Further investigation into whether TDP-43 RNA interacts with ALYREF protein are needed to determine whether this may also be by direct binding. Overall, our data suggest that there are commonalities in the ability of ALYREF to modify expression of these two disease genes over a non-disease transcript. While it is clear that ALYREF is selective to specific transcripts [
17,
24,
33,
49], what defines an ALYREF interacting gene is currently unknown. Only recently have there been studies that shed light on underlying mechanisms, defining ALYREF as an m
5C reader [
57] and potential ALYREF binding motifs [
46].
ALYREF may serve as a unique therapeutic target in ALS as its depletion was able to suppress both TDP-43- and G4C2-induced toxicity. Further investigations into the role of
ALYREF in global transcription, global mRNA export, and effects on disease-associated pathways are needed to define it as a potential therapeutic target [
24,
53,
55]. Previous work showed that ALYREF is not essential for bulk mRNA export from the nucleus in
Drosophila and
C. elegans [
17,
33] and only a subset of mRNAs are affected when ALYREF is depleted in human cells [
41,
49]. Importantly, our data indicate that ALYREF is upregulated in motor neurons of ALS patients, with patients bearing the expanded G4C2 repeat mutation showing significantly higher ALYREF levels (see Fig.
5). Overall, these data support previous findings that there may be overlapping mechanisms underlying these related disease etiologies [
7,
12,
29,
44]. Interesting to C9+ disease, ALYREF has been reported to interact with Iws1 – a transcription factor that binds SPT4/5 RNAPII-elongation factors [
31,
58]. SPT4/5 has recently been identified as unique transcriptional regulators of expanded G4C2 [
26], suggesting that ALYREF is positioned to be a protein that may couple G4C2 transcription to nuclear export machinery. TREX proteins (including ALYREF) were also found to interact with Matrin 3 [
3], another RBP that is mutated in ALS [
22], suggesting that ALYREF may play a role in multiple types of ALS/FTD.
Despite recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying ALS/FTD, there is an urgent and unmet need to develop effective therapeutics. Our results identify ALYREF as a potential novel target that is increased in ALS motor neurons, and whose downregulation may suppress the toxicity of multiple ALS and FTD associated genes.
Material and methods
Drosophila stocks and crosses
Flies were grown on standard cornmeal molasses agar with dry yeast. Stock lines were maintained at 18 °C. Transgenic lines used in this study were:
UAS-TDP-43/CyO; GMR-GAL4 (YH3)/TM6B.
UAS-TDP-43(37 M), UAS-hATXN2-32Q (F26)/CyO; GMR-GAL4 (YH3)/TM6B and
GMR-GAL4 (YH3)/TM3, Sb [
25].
UAS-(G4C2)49, GMR-GAL4 (YH3)/TM6, Sb [
18,
26,
37].
UAS-LDS-(G4C2)4,42,44[GR-GFP] [
18].
UAS-TauWT [
56]. RNAi lines from the Transgenic RNAi Project (TRiP) and mutant lines were obtained from the Bloomington
Drosophila Stock Center. Additional RNAi lines were obtained from the Vienna
Drosophila Resource Center. Complete list of RNAi lines used in this study is found in Additional file
4: Table S3.
For the genetic screen, virgin female flies were selected from each disease model line or from driver-only lines and were crossed to males harboring RNAi transgenes at 25 °C, under normal light/dark cycles. Male progeny of the appropriate genotypes were selected, aged to 3-5d at 25 °C. For external eye imaging, flies were anesthetized with ether for 10 min, placed on a glass slide and imaged with Leica Z16 APO. For internal eye morphology, male flies from the same crosses were fixed in Bouin’s solution (Sigma-Aldrich) for 120 h, embedded in paraffin, sectioned on a Leica RM2255 microtome and mounted on SuperFrost Plus slides (Fischer Scientific). Slides were dried overnight at room temperature, baked for 1 h at 56 °C, and paraffin was removed with Histoclear (National Diagnostics). Slides were mounted with coverslips using Cytoseal XYL (Thermo Scientific) and imaged using an upright Leica fluorescent microscope.
Western immunoblots
20 fly heads were homogenized in 50 μl LDS sample buffer (Invitrogen) including 5% beta-mercaptoethanol (Sigma-Aldrich). Samples were boiled at 95 °C for 5 min and centrifuged at 15,000 g for 5 min at 4 °C. The supernatant was collected and stored at − 20 °C until loaded on 4–12% Bis-Tris NuPAGE gels (Invitrogen) using 5 μl of sample per well. Gel electrophoresis was performed at 140 V for 70 min and the gels were blotted on a PVDF membrane using XCell II (Invitrogen) at 30 V for 1 h. Membranes were blocked in 3% bovine serum albumin in tris buffered saline with 0.1% Tween20 (TBST) for 30 min and incubated with primary antibodies in blocking buffer over-night at 4 °C. Following washes in TBST, membranes were incubated with HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies (Jackson Immunoresearch) at 1:10,000 for 2 h, washed and the luminescent signal was developed using ECL prime (Amersham) and detected with Amersham Imager 600. Primary antibodies: anti β-tubulin (CAT#E7, DSHB, 1:500), anti β-Galactosidase (CAT#Z378A, Promega, 1:2000), anti-TDP-43 (CAT#10782, Proteintech, 1:1000), anti Tau (CAT#A0024, Dako, 1:1000).
Real-time PCR
RNA was extracted using Trizol Reagent (ThermoFisher Scientific), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. RNA concentration was determined using Nanodrop (Nanodrop) and RNA quality was assessed using 1% agarose gel-electrophoresis. 400 ng RNA was used per reverse-transcription reaction using the High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems) in a 20 μl total reaction volume using random primers. cDNA was then used as template for real-time qPCR using Fast SYBR Green Master Mix (Applied Biosystems). Real-time PCR was performed on the Applied Biosystems ViiA7 machine using 384-well format in technical duplicates. For each primer set, a serial dilution curve validated primer efficiency. Melting curve analysis confirmed the existence of one amplicon. Primers were designed using Primer3 (
http://bioinfo.ut.ee/primer3-0.4.0/primer3/).
Primer sequences are listed in Additional file
5: Table S4.
Human tissue – immunofluorescence
For immuno-fluorescence, Superfrost slides (Fisher Scientific) with paraffin sections were deparaffinized in xylene, 100, 90 and 70% ethanol. Following a brief rinse in water, antigen retrieval was performed by boiling the samples for 10 min in citric buffer pH 6 (10 mM citric acid, pH 6). Slides were cooled to room temperature, rinsed with water and incubated in blocking buffer for 20 min (Tris buffered saline (TBS) with 2% bovine serum). Sections were circled with a liquid blocker PAP pen (Daido Sangyo) and primary antibodies in blocking buffer were incubated overnight at 4 °C. Following 3 washes in TBS, slides were blocked for 5 min and incubated with secondary antibodies for 2 h at room-temperature. Slides were washed 3 times in TBS. To quench autofluorescence, slides were washed for 1 min in 70% ethanol, incubated for 1 min in Sudan Black (0.3% in 70% ethanol), and washed 3 times in 70% ethanol. Final TBS wash was followed by 1 μg/ml DAPI to stain DNA, slides were rinsed in water, mounted with anti-fade mounting media (20 mM Tris pH 8.0, 0.5% N-propyl gallate, 80% glycerol), and sealed with clear nail polish. Quantification of fluorescent signal was performed with Fiji [
45]. Imaging and quantification were performed blinded to disease status. Primary antibodies were used at 1:200 dilution: anti-ALYREF (mouse monoclonal, CAT# ab6141, abcam), anti-ALYREF (rabbit polyclonal, CAT# ab202894, abcam). Secondary antibodies were used at 1:200 dilution: anti-Rabbit IgG Alexa Fluor 594 (#A-11012, 1:200, Invitrogen). Details of human samples are described in Additional file
3: Table S2. Donor spinal cord samples following neuropathological evaluation were selected from the brain bank at the Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research at the University of Pennsylvania [
51]. Phosphorylated TDP-43 deposits were evaluated using the pS409/410 antibody (mAb, 1:500) [
40]. Controls were defined as subjects who were cognitively normal and did not meet the threshold for a neurodegenerative or vascular dementia diagnosis during the neuropathological examination. Informed consent for autopsy was obtained for all patients from their next of kin.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using Prism (Version 6, GraphPad). One-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s or Tukey’s multiple comparisons test or two tailed Student’s t-test were used as appropriate, with significance level set at 0.05.