The prevalence of VUR is increased in selected groups, such as children with UTI, first-degree relatives of patients with VUR and children with antenatal hydronephrosis [
74]. This was the reason for the development of recommendations for the investigation for VUR in these groups.
Children with a first upper UTI
The guidelines of the American Academy of Pediatrics for all febrile children having their first UTI below 2 years of age include a combination of US and VCUG or RNC [
75]. There is no benefit in delaying the performance of VCUG or RNC as long as the child is free of infection and bladder irritability is absent [
75]. Swedish and United Kingdom guidelines are similar, but also include a DMSA [
76,
77]. However, these guidelines do not reflect changing trends in the evaluation of children with UTIs. Recently, it has been suggested that a DMSA scan in these patients may replace VCUG as a first investigation, based on the fact that a normal DMSA scan excludes VUR of clinical significance [
29]. VCUG is recommended only in patients with renal lesions on DMSA scan or recurrent febrile UTIs [
28,
29]. It has also been suggested that DMSA should be performed within a few days after the diagnosis of APN, as the number of positive studies decreases rapidly following the initiation of antibiotic therapy [
78].
It has to be pointed out that false-positive urine cultures are frequent and should be appropriately ruled out to protect children with a false diagnosis of UTI from being subjected to non-justified investigations. For this reason, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended that if an infant or young child 2 months to 2 years of age with unexplained fever is assessed as being sufficiently ill to warrant immediate antimicrobial therapy, a urine specimen should be obtained by suprapubic aspiration or transurethral bladder catheterization; the diagnosis of UTI cannot be established by a culture of urine collected in a bag [
75]. However, some children with clinical and laboratory findings of APN have negative urine cultures, because of inappropriate use of antibiotics. Levtchenko et al. have shown that APN can be diagnosed in these patients with the findings of DMSA [
78].
It is fundamental that infections of the upper urinary tract should be distinguished from UTIs without parenchymal involvement. The diagnosis of APN in children with febrile UTIs on the basis of clinical and laboratory observations is unreliable. Therefore, an acute DMSA scan can be very useful in diagnosing APN and for the identification of patients at risk for subsequent renal scarring [
20]. It is also feasible to differentiate the defects of APN and permanent renal scarring with an acute DMSA scan. APN is characterized by focal areas of diminished uptake with a normal renal contour. In contrast, permanent renal defects appear as focal or generalized areas of diminished radioisotope uptake with thinning or flattening of the cortex, and in other cases renal scars appear as classic discrete wedge-shaped parenchymal defects. This differentiation becomes more difficult in cases of APN with pre-existent renal scarring [
20]. The major advantage of an acute DMSA is the identification of primary lesions and their differentiation from secondary lesions, but this is not always possible [
20].
The use of DMSA for early investigation of young febrile children with their first UTI is not generally accepted. Recently, a questionnaire related to DMSA in children with UTI was submitted to 30 experts. Only 58% of the experts are systematically performing this examination during the acute phase of infection [
79]. The major criticism is that the findings of an acute DMSA may not change the management of individual cases. A normally sized kidney on US with or without VUR has a very low risk for cumulative damage by UTIs resulting in CRI. Most children with APN will show abnormalities that may not have long-term implications. In addition, a DMSA has a more than negligible radiation load, especially when repeated several times. Some centers recommend a VCUG or RNC after a febrile UTI and recommend that DMSA should be performed 6 months after the last UTI in all patients with VUR, and only in those patients without VUR who are considered at higher risk for renal abnormality, i.e., with at least two febrile UTIs or one febrile UTI and delayed antibiotic treatment [
17].
Guidelines for older children differ between centers and are not evidence based. US and DMSA are usually used for the investigation of these patients, and VCUG or preferably RNC is used only in children with abnormalities seen on DMSA or US, or those with antenatal hydronephrosis or a family history of VUR. It is important to advise the families to maintain a high suspicion for further UTI. Obviously all children with recurrent febrile UTIs should be investigated with a VCUG.
Poor compliance to the recommendations by the American Academy of Pediatrics for a first UTI in children was found in a retrospective cohort study using Washington State Medicaid data. Actually, less than 50% of children who were diagnosed with a UTI in their 1st year of life received either timely anatomic imaging or imaging for VUR [
80]. Recently, the evidence for routine VCUG has been increasingly questioned, and possibly this was one of the reasons for the poor compliance in this study. In recent years there has been a tendency to neglect important data that has accumulated from the experience of many experts over the last 4 decades. However, the absence of evidence is not evidence of the absence.
In conclusion, there are two strategies for the initial investigation of children below 2 years of age with a first febrile UTI. The first recommends a DMSA scan and a US, and only children with renal lesions on DMSA scan or with recurrent febrile UTIs should be evaluated with a VCUG or RNC. It is usually feasible to distinguish primary and secondary renal lesions with this approach. This is the preferred procedure in centers with a legitimate academic interest. The alternative strategy adopted by many clinically oriented pediatric nephrologists is the use of a VCUG or RNC and a US for the initial investigation of these patients. A DMSA scan is recommended in a later stage only in patients with VUR or with recurrent UTIs.
First-degree relatives of patients with VUR
The incidence of sibling VUR is significantly higher compared with the general population, and most studies advocate screening asymptomatic siblings of patients with VUR [
81]. VUR was found in 32% of 570 siblings in a review from 11 publications [
6]. However, VUR was greater than grade III in only 2%, and renal abnormalities were identified in 3% of siblings. These data do not prove that screening and treating asymptomatic siblings decrease infectious renal scarring [
6]. In another study, a group of 117 asymptomatic siblings of known patients with VUR older than 5 years as well as younger children whose parents refused VCUG were screened with US. A VCUG was performed on children with US abnormalities (discrepancy in renal size, renal scarring or hydronephrosis, or a change in the size of the renal pelvis). Only nine patients had abnormal US, and VUR was diagnosed in five of them [
82]. Obviously the incidence of VUR in the remaining 108 patients is not known, since the absence of abnormal findings in US does not exclude VUR. VCUG screening is probably unnecessary in siblings older than 5 years, since there is evidence that they have a lower incidence of VUR compared with younger children [
83,
84].
Young asymptomatic siblings should be investigated with a VCUG or RNC. US might be a reliable alternative to invasive VCUG screening in older children. However, studies of control groups that consider sibling age are still needed to determine the benefit of screening asymptomatic siblings [
6]. Families of these children should be advised to maintain a high suspicion for UTIs, and the treatment of diagnosed UTIs should start immediately.
Children with antenatal hydronephrosis
The wider use of antenatal US resulted in an increased diagnosis of abnormalities of the urinary tract. Fetal renal pelvis dilatation is the most common abnormality, observed in 4.5% of pregnancies [
85]. Significantly more dilating VUR was found in neonates with UTIs detected within the first 4 postnatal weeks compared with antenatally diagnosed patients (53% versus 29%). The incidence of congenital renal lesions was 14% in both groups. Focal renal scars developed during follow-up in 19% of renal units with VUR of grades IV and V, exclusively in the postnatal patient group [
86]. Findings were similar in the study by Garin et al., who documented that only patients with grade IV-V VUR are at high risk for serious adverse outcome [
87]. Infants with a history of fetal renal pelvis dilatation should have a postnatal US after the 1st week to avoid the false-negative results that occur in this period [
88]. During the last decade, improved US technology has led to a significant increase of the antenatal identification of newborns with a small renal pelvis dilatation and the postnatal diagnosis of infants with low-grade VUR. In a recent study, a VCUG was performed only in infants with antenatal hydronephrosis and abnormal neonatal US findings. This policy resulted in decreasing the number of VCUG by 50% [
5]. Using these restrictive recommendations, low-grade VUR was diagnosed in 74% of cases and a high rate of spontaneous resolution occurred at 24 months [
5].
In conclusion, only infants with a history of fetal renal pelvis dilatation and postnatal hydronephrosis should be investigated with a VCUG or RNC. However, occasional cases of low-grade VUR could be missed with this approach, and all parents should be informed that if their child develops a fever of unknown origin, then the urine should be investigated for infection as soon as possible.