nach oben

Neuropsychology Review

Erschienen in:

01.12.2017 | Review

Cognitive Interventions for Cognitively Healthy, Mildly Impaired, and Mixed Samples of Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized-Controlled Trials

verfasst von: Catherine M. Mewborn, Cutter A. Lindbergh, L. Stephen Miller

Erschienen in: Neuropsychology Review | Ausgabe 4/2017

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Cognitive interventions may improve cognition, delay age-related cognitive declines, and improve quality of life for older adults. The current meta-analysis was conducted to update and expand previous work on the efficacy of cognitive interventions for older adults and to examine the impact of key demographic and methodological variables. EBSCOhost and Embase online databases and reference lists were searched to identify relevant randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) of cognitive interventions for cognitively healthy or mildly impaired (MCI) older adults (60+ years). Interventions trained a single cognitive domain (e.g., memory) or were multi-domain training, and outcomes were assessed immediately post-intervention using standard neuropsychological tests. In total, 279 effects from 97 studies were pooled based on a random-effects model and expressed as Hedges’ g (unbiased). Overall, results indicated that cognitive interventions produce a small, but significant, improvement in the cognitive functioning of older adults, relative to active and passive control groups (g = 0.298, p < .001, 95% CI = 0.248–0.347). These results were confirmed using multi-level analyses adjusting for nesting of effect sizes within studies (g = 0.362, p < .001, 95% CI = 0.275, 0.449). Age, education, and cognitive status (healthy vs. MCI) were not significant moderators. Working memory interventions proved most effective (g = 0.479), though memory, processing speed, and multi-domain interventions also significantly improved cognition. Effects were larger for directly trained outcomes but were also significant for non-trained outcomes (i.e., “transfer effects”). Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed. This project was pre-registered with PROSPERO (#42016038386).

Albert, M. S., DeKosky, S. T., Dickson, D., Dubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Fox, N. C., et al. (2011). The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 7(3), 270–279.CrossRef

*Allaire, J. C. (2001). Performance gains and fluctuations: The effects of cognitive practice and the role of intraindividual cognitive variability in older adults (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University.

*Angelucci, F., Peppe, A., Carlesimo, G. A., Serafini, F., Zabberoni, S., Barban, F., et al. (2015). A pilot study on the effect of cognitive training on BDNF serum levels in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9(130). doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00130.

*Anguera, J. A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., et al. (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature, 501(7465), 97–101. doi:10.1038/nature12486.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Bahar-Fuchs, A., Clare, L., & Woods, B. (2013). Cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation for persons with mild to moderate dementia of the Alzheimer’s or vascular type: A review. Alzheimer's Research & Therapy, 5(35). doi:10.1186/alzrt189.

*Ball, K., Berch, D. B., Helmers, K. R., Jobe, J. B., Leveck, M. D., Marsiske, M., et al. (2002). Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 288(18), 2271–2281.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Ball, K., Edwards, J. D., & Ross, L. A. (2007). The impact of speed of processing training on cognitive and everyday functions. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62(Special issue 1), 19–31.CrossRef

Ballesteros, S., Kraft, E., Santana, S., & Tziraki, C. (2015). Maintaining older brain functionality: A targeted review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 55, 453–477. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.06.008.PubMedCrossRef

*Baltes, P. B., Kliegal, R., & Dittmann- Kohli, F. (1988). On the locus of training gains in research on the plasticity of fluid intelligence in old age. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 392–400.CrossRef

*Barnes, D. E., Santos-Modesitt, W., Poelke, G., Kramer, A. F., Castro, C., Middleton, L. E., & Yaffe, K. (2013). The mental activity and exercise (MAX) trial: A randomized controlled trial to enhance cognitive function in older adults. JAMA Internal Medicine, 173(9), 797–804. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.189.PubMedCrossRef

Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 612–637. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.128.4.612.PubMedCrossRef

*Belchior, P., Marsiske, M., Sisco, S. M., Yam, A., Bavelier, D., Ball, K., & Mann, W. C. (2013). Video game training to improve selective visual attention in older adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1318–1324. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.034.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Bier, B., de Boysson, C., & Belleville, S. (2014). Identifying training modalities to improve multitasking in older adults. Age, 36(9688). doi:10.1007/s11357-014-9688-2.

*Bivens, S. F. (2006). Cognitive training interventions using computers as an aid for improving cognitive performance in older adults (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Houston, Texas: University of Houston.

*Borella, E., Carretti, B., Riboldi, F., & De Beni, R. (2010). Working memory training in older adults: Evidence of transfer and maintenance effects. Psychology and Aging, 25(4), 767–778. doi:10.1037/a0020683.PubMedCrossRef

*Borella, E., Carretti, B., Cantarella, A., Rioldi, F., Zavagnin, M., & De Beni, R. (2014). Benefits of training visuospatial working memory in young-old and old-old. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 714–727. doi:10.1037/a0034293.PubMedCrossRef

Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., & Rothstein, H. (2007). Meta-analysis: Fixed effect vs. random effects. Retrieved from https://www.meta-analysis.com/downloads/Meta-analysis%20fixed%20effect%20vs%20random%20effects.pdf

Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. (2011). Introduction to meta-analysis. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

*Bozoki, A., Radovanovic, M., Winn, B., Hetter, C., & Anthony, J. C. (2013). Effects of a computer-based cognitive exercise program on age-related cognitive decline. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 57(1), 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2013.02.009.PubMedCrossRef

*Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., & Bäckman, L. (2012). Working-memory training in younger and older adults: Training gains, transfer, and maintenance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(63). doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00063.

*Brehmer, Y., Shing, Y. L., Heekeren, H. R., Lindenberger, U., & Bäckman, L. (2015). Training-induced changes in subsequent-memory effects: No major differences among children, younger adults, and older adults. NeuroImage, 131, 214–225. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.11.074.PubMedCrossRef

Brooks, J. O., Friedman, L. F., Pearman, A. M., Gray, C., & Yesavage, J. A. (1999). Mnemonic training in older adults: Effects of age, length of training, and type of cognitive pre-training. International Psychogeriatrics, 11(1), 75–84.PubMedCrossRef

*Buiza, C., Etxeberria, I., Galdona, N., Gonzalez, M. F., Arriola, E., Lopez de Munain, A., et al. (2008). A randomized, two-year study of the efficacy of cognitive intervention on elderly people: The Donostia longitudinal study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(1), 85–94. doi:10.1002/gps.1846.PubMedCrossRef

*Burki, C. N., Ludwig, C., Chicherio, C., & de Ribaupierre, A. (2014). Individual differences in cognitive plasticity: An investigation of training curves in younger and older adults. Psychological Research, 78(6), 821–835. doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0559-3.PubMedCrossRef

Buschert, V., Bokde, A. L., & Hampel, H. (2010). Cognitive intervention in Alzheimer disease. Nature Reviews. Neurology, 6(9), 508–517. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2010.113.PubMedCrossRef

Cahn-Weiner, D. A., Malloy, P. F., Boyle, P. A., Marran, M., & Salloway, S. (2000). Prediction of functional status from neuropsychological tests in community-dwelling elderly individuals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 14(2), 187–195.PubMedCrossRef

*Candela, F., Zucchetti, G., Magistro, D., & Rabaglietti, R. (2015). The effects of a physical activity program and a cognitive training program on the long-term memory and selective attention of older adults: A comparative study. Activities, Adaptation, & Aging, 39(1), 77–91. doi:10.1080/01924788.2014.977191.CrossRef

*Cantarella, A., Borella, E., Carretti, B., Kliegel, M., & de Beni, R. (2016). Benefits in tasks related to everyday life competences after a working memory training in older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. doi:10.1002/gps.4448.

*Carretti, B., Borella, E., Fostinelli, S., & Zavagnin, M. (2013a). Benefits of training working memory in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: Specific and transfer effects. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(4), 617–626. doi:10.1017/S1041610212002177.PubMedCrossRef

*Carretti, B., Borella, E., Zavagnin, M., & de Beni, R. (2013b). Gains in language comprehension relating to working memory training in healthy older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(5), 539–546. doi:10.1002/gps.3859.PubMedCrossRef

*Carvalho, F. C. R., Neri, A. L., & Yassuda, M. S. (2010). Episodic memory training with emphasis on categorization for older adults without dementia and depression. Psicologia: Reflexao e Critica, 23(2), 317–323.

*Cavallini, E., Bottiroli, S., Capotosto, E., De Beni, R., Pavan, G., Vecchi, T., & Borella, E. (2015). Self-help memory training for healthy older adults in a residential care center: Specific and transfer effects on performance and beliefs. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 30(8), 870–880. doi:10.1002/gps.4230.PubMedCrossRef

*Chan, J. S. Y., Wu, Q., Liang, D., & Yan, J. H. (2015). Visuospatial working memory training facilities visually-aided explicit sequence learning. Acta Psychologica, 161, 145–153. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.09.008.PubMedCrossRef

Clare, L. (2003). Cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation for people with early-stage dementia. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 13, 75–83.CrossRef

Clark, D. O., Xu, H., Unverzagt, F. W., & Hendrie, H. (2016). Does targeted cognitive training reduce educational disparities in cognitive function among cognitively normal older adults? Int. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 31(7), 809–817. doi:10.1002/gps.4395.CrossRef

Couture, M., Larivière, N., & Lefrançois, R. (2005). Psychological distress in older adults with low functional independence: A multidimensional perspective. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 41(1), 101–111. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2004.12.004.PubMedCrossRef

*Craik, F. I. M., Winocur, G., Palmer, H., Binns, M. A., Edwards, M., Bridges, K., et al. (2007). Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: Effects on memory. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(01), 132–142. doi:10.10170/S1355617707070166.PubMedCrossRef

*Dahlin, E., Nyberg, L., Bäckman, L., & Stigsdotter Neely, A. (2008). Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: Immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 720–730. doi:10.1037/a0014296.PubMedCrossRef

*Daugherty, M. K. (2000). Verbal memory performance in able older adults: Impact of memory, attention, and relaxation training (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University.

Denney, N. W., & Heidrich, S. M. (1990). Training effects on Raven’s advanced progressive matrices in young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Psychology and Aging, 5(1), 144–145.PubMedCrossRef

*Derwinger, A., Stigsdotter Neely, A., MacDonald, S., & Bäckman, L. (2005). Forgetting numbers in old age: Strategy and learning speed matter. Gerontology, 51(4), 277–2284. doi:10.1159/000085124.PubMedCrossRef

Dinse, H. R. (2005). Treating the aging brain: Cortical reorganization and behavior. Re-Engineering of the Damaged Brain and Spinal Cord: Evidence-Based Neurorehabilitation, 93, 79–84.CrossRef

*Dunlosky, J., Kubat-Silman, A. K., & Hertzog, C. (2003). Training monitoring skills improves older adults’ self-paced associated learning. Psychology and Aging, 18(2), 340–345. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.2.340.PubMedCrossRef

*Edwards, J. D., Wadley, V. G., Myers, R. S., Roeenker, D. L., Cissell, G. M., & Ball, K. K. (2002). Transfer of a speed of processing intervention to near and far cognitive functions. Gerontology, 48(5), 329–340.PubMedCrossRef

*Edwards, J. D., Wadley, V. G., Vance, D. E., Wood, K., Roenker, D. L., & Ball, K. K. (2005). The impact of speed of processing training on cognitive and everyday performance. Aging & Mental Health, 9(3), 262–271. doi:10.1080/13607860412331336788.CrossRef

Egger, M., Smith, G., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal, 315(7109), 629–634.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

von Elm, E., Poglia, G., Walder, B., & Tramer, M. R. (2004). Different patterns of duplicate publication: An analysis of articles used in systematic reviews. JAMA, 291(8), 974–980.CrossRef

*Fabre, C., Charmari, K., Mucci, P., Masse-Biron, J., & Prefaut, C. (2002). Improvement of cognitive function by mental and/or individualized aerobic training in healthy elderly subjects. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 23(06), 415–421.PubMedCrossRef

Fairchild, J. K., Friedman, L., Rosen, A. C., & Yesavage, J. A. (2013). Which older adults maintain benefit from cognitive training? Use of signal detection methods to identify long-term treatment gains. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(4), 607–616. doi:10.1017/S1041610212002049.PubMedCrossRef

Fillit, H. M., Butler, R. N., O’Connell, A. W., Albert, M. S., Birren, J. E., Cotman, C. W., et al. (2002). Achieving and maintaining cognitive vitality with aging. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 77(7), 681–696. doi:10.4065/77.7.681.PubMedCrossRef

*Finn, M., & McDonald, S. (2011). Computerised cognitive training for older persons with mild cognitive impairment: A pilot study using a randomized controlled trial design. Brain Impairment, 12(3), 187–199.CrossRef

*Finn, M., & McDonald, S. (2015). Repetition-lag training to improve recollection memory in older people with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A randomized controlled trial. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 22(2), 244–258. doi:10.1080/13825585.2014.915918.CrossRef

Fleiss, J. L., Levin, B., & Park, D. A. (2003). Statistical methods for rates and proportions (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..CrossRef

*Fortman, J. (2012). Computer-based cognitive training for age-related cognitive decline and mild cognitive impairment (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Santa Barbara, California: Antioch University – Santa Barbara.

*Gajewski, P. D., & Falkenstein, M. (2012). Training-induced improvement of response selection and error detection in aging assessed by task switching: Effects of cognitive, physical, and relaxation training. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(130). doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00130.

*Gao, Y., Peng, H., & Wen, J. (2014). The training effect of working memory based on a central executive system intervention in older adults: A randomized controlled study. Journal of Adult Development, 21(2), 80–88. doi:10.1007/s10804-013-9181-7.CrossRef

*Garcia-Campuzano, M. T., Virues-Ortega, J., Smith, S., & Moussavi, Z. (2013). Effects of cognitive training targeting associative memory in the elderly: A small randomized trial and a longitudinal evaluation. [Letter to the editor]. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 61(12), 2252–2254. doi:10.1111/jgs.12574.PubMedCrossRef

Gates, N., & Valenzuela, M. (2010). Cognitive exercise and its role in cognitive function in older adults. Current Psychiatry Reports, 12(1), 20–27. doi:10.1007/s11920-009-0085-y.PubMedCrossRef

Gauthier, S., Reisberg, B., Zaudig, M., Petersen, R. C., Ritchie, K., Broich, K., & Winblad, B. (2006). Mild cognitive impairment. Lancet, 367(9518), 1262-1270.

*Giuli, C., Papa, R., Lattanzio, F., & Postacchini, D. (2016). The effects of cognitive training for elderly: Results from the my mind project. Rejuvenation Research. doi:10.1089/rej.2015.1791.

Gleser, L. J., & Olkin, I. (1994). Stochastically dependent effect sizes. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 339–355). New York: NY: SAGE Publications.

Glisky, E. L. (2007). Changes in cognitive function in human aging. In D. Riddle (Ed.), Brain aging: Models, methods, and mechanisms (pp. 3–20). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.CrossRef

Gluud, L. L. (2006). Bias in clinical intervention research. American Journal of Epidemiology, 163(6), 493–501. doi:10.1093/aje/kwj069.PubMedCrossRef

Goh, J. O. (2011). Functional dedifferentiation and altered connectivity in older adults: Neural accounts of cognitive aging. Aging Dis., 2(1), 30–48.PubMedPubMedCentral

Goh, J. O., & Park, D. C. (2009). Neuroplasticity and cognitive aging: The scaffolding theory of aging and cognition. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27(5), 391–403. doi:10.3233/RNN-2009-0493.PubMedPubMedCentral

*Gooding, A. L., Choi, J., Fiszdon, J. M., Wilkins, K., & Kirwin, P.D. van Dyck, C.H., …, & Mindt, M.R. (2015). Comparing three methods of computerized cognitive training for older adults with subclinical cognitive decline. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. doi:10.1080/09602011.2015.1118389.

*Greenaway, M. C., Duncan, N. L., & Smith, G. E. (2013). The memory support system for mild cognitive impairment: Randomized trial of a cognitive rehabilitation intervention. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(4), 402–409. doi:10.1002/gps.3838.PubMedCrossRef

Gross, A. L., Parisi, J. M., Spira, A. P., Kueider, A. M., Ko, J. Y., Saczynski, J. S., et al. (2012). Memory training interventions for older adults: A meta-analysis. Aging & Mental Health, 16(6), 722–734. doi:10.1080/13607863.2012.667783.CrossRef

*Hampstead, B. M., Sathian, K., Phillips, P. A., Amaraneni, A., Deluane, W. R., & Stringer, A. Y. (2012). Mnemonic strategy training improves memory for object location associations both in healthy elderly and patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A randomized, single-blind study. Neuropsychology, 26(3), 385–399. doi:10.1037/a0027545.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Hayslip, B. (1989). Alternative mechanisms for improvement in fluid ability performance among older adults. Psychology and Aging, 4(1), 122–124.PubMedCrossRef

Hedges, L. (1981). Distribution theory for Glass’s estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6, 107–178.CrossRef

Hedges, L., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. San Diego: Academic Press.

Hedges, L. V., & Pigott, T. D. (2004). The power of statistical tests for moderators in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods, 9(4), 426–445. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.9.4.426.PubMedCrossRef

*Heinzel, S., Schulte, S., Onken, J., Duong, Q. L., Riemer, T. G., Heinz, A., et al. (2014). Working memory training improvements and gains in non-trained cognitive tasks in younger and older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 21(2), 146–173. doi:10.1080/13825585.2013.790338.CrossRef

*Herrera, C., Chambon, C., Michel, B. F., Paban, V., & Alescio-Lautier, B. (2012). Positive effects of computer-based cognitive training in adults with mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychologia, 50(8), 1871–1881. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.012.PubMedCrossRef

Higgins J.P.T, Green S. (Eds). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.handbook.cochrane.org.

Higgins, J., Thompson, S., Deeks, J., & Altman, D. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal, 327(7414), 557–560.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Hill, R. D., Yesavage, J. A., Sheikh, J., & Friedman, L. (1989). Mental status as a predictor of response to memory training in older adults. Educational Gerontology, 15(6), 633–639.CrossRef

*Hill, R.D., Storandt, M., & Simeone, C. (1990). The effects of memory skills training and incentives on free recall in older learners. Journal of Gerontology, 45(6), P277-P232.

*Hill, R. D., Allen, C., & McWhorter, P. (1991). Stories as a mnemonic aid for older learners. Psychology and Aging, 6(3), 484–486.

Hoyer, W. J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2006). Memory aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (209–232) (6th ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press.

*Hoyer, W. J., Labouvie, G. V., & Baltes, P. B. (1973). Modification of response speed deficits and intellectual performance in the elderly. Human Development, 16(3), 233–242.

*Hudak, E. M. (2012). The effects of cognitive stimulation and computerized memory training among older adults residing in independent-living facilities (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Tampa, Florida: University of South Florida.

Huedo-Medina, T., Sanchez-Meca, J., Marin-Martinez, F., & Botella, J. (2006). Assessing heterogeneity in meta-analysis: Q statistics or I2 index? CHIP documents. Paper 19. http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/chip_docs/19.

*Hynes, S. M. (2015). Internet, home-based cognitive and strategy training with older adults: A study to assess gains to daily life. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. doi:10.1007/s40520-015-0496-z.

Kalish, L. A., & Begg, G. B. (1985). Treatment allocation methods in clinical trials: A review. Statistics in Medicine, 4, 129–144.PubMedCrossRef

Karbach, J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2014). Making working memory work: A meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Psychological Science, 25(11), 2027–2037. doi:10.1177/0956797614548725.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Karp, A., Kareholt, I., Qiu, C., Bellander, T., Winblad, B., & Fratiglioni, L. (2004). Relation of education and occupation-based socioeconomic status to incident Alzheimer’s disease. American Journal of Epidemiology, 159(2), 175–183. doi:10.1093/aje/kwh018.PubMedCrossRef

Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of cognitive training and mental stimulation on cognitive and everyday functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 15(1), 28–43. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2014.02.004.PubMedCrossRef

*Kim, G. H., Jeon, S., Im, K., Kwon, H., Lee, B. H., Kim, G. Y., et al. (2015). Structural brain changes after traditional and robot-assisted multi-domain cognitive training in community-dwelling healthy elderly. PloS One, 10(4), e0123251. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123251.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Kinsella, G. J., Mullaly, E., Rand, E., Ong, B., Burton, C., Price, S., et al. (2009). Early intervention for mild cognitive impairment: A randomised controlled trial. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 80(7), 730–736. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2008.148346.PubMedCrossRef

Kraft, E. (2012). Cognitive function, physical activity, and aging: Possible biological links and implications for multimodal interventions. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 19(1), 248–263. doi:10.1080/13825585.2011.645010.CrossRef

*Kwok, T., Wong, A., Chan, G., Shiu, Y. Y., Lam, K., Young, D., et al. (2013a). Effectiveness of cognitive training for Chinese elderly in Hong Kong. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 8, 213–219. doi:10.2147/CIA.S38070.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Kwok, T. C. Y., Bai, X., Li, J. C. Y., Ho, F. K. Y., & Lee, T. M. C. (2013b). Effectiveness of cognitive training in Chinese older people with subjective cognitive complaints: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(2), 208–215. doi:10.1002/gps.3812.PubMedCrossRef

Lachin, J. M., Matis, J. P., & Weis, L. J. (1988). Randomization in clinical trials: Conclusions and recommendations. Controlled Clinical Trials, 9(4), 365–374.PubMedCrossRef

*Lampit, A., Hallock, H., Moss, R., Kwok, S., Rosser, M., Lukjanenko, M., et al. (2014a). The timecourse of global cognitive gains from supervised computer-assisted cognitive training: A randomised, active-controlled trial in elderly with multiple dementia risk factors. The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease, 1(1), 33–39. doi:10.14283/jpad.2014.18.

Lampit, A., Hallock, H., & Valenzuela, M. (2014b). Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLoS Medicine, 11(11), e1001756. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001756.

*Lange, S., & Süß, H. M. (2015). Experimental evaluation of near- and far-transfer effects of an adaptive multicomponent working memory training. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29(4), 502–514. doi:10.1002/acp.3126.CrossRef

*Latorre Postigo, J. M., Hernandez-Viadel, J. V., & Trives, J. J. R. (2010). Efficacy of a group memory training method for older adults based on visualization and association techniques: A randomized, controlled trial with a placebo group. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(7), 956–968. doi:10.1002/acp.1596.CrossRef

*Lee, T., Goh, S. J. A., Quek, S. Y., Phillips, R., Guan, C., Cheung, Y. B., et al. (2013). A brain-computer interface based cognitive training system for healthy elderly: A randomized control pilot study for usability and preliminary efficacy. PloS One, 8(11), e79419. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079419.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Legault, C., Jennings, J. M., Katula, J. A., Dagenbach, D., Gaussoin, S. A., Sink, K. M., et al. (2011). Designing clinical trials for assessing the effects of cognitive training and physical activity interventions on cognitive outcomes: The seniors health and activity research program pilot (SHARP-P) study, a randomized controlled trial. BMC Geriatrics, 11(27). doi:10.1186/1471-2318-11-27.

*Leung, N. T. Y., Tam, H. M. K., Chu, L. W., Kwok, T. C. Y., Chan, F., Lam, L. C. W., et al. (2015). Neural plastic effects of cognitive training on aging brain. Neural Plasticity, 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/535618.

Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gotzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P., et al. (2009). The PRISMA statement for report systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 65–94.

*Lima-Silva, T. B., Ordonez, T. N., dos Santos, G. D., Fabricio, A. T., Aramaki, F. O., de Almeida, E. B., et al. (2010). Effects of cognitive training based on metamemory and mental images. Dement. Neuropsychol., 4(2), 114–119.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Lindbergh, C. A., Dishman, R. K., & Miller, L. S. (2016). Functional disability in mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review, 26(2), 129–159. doi:10.1007/s11065-016-9321-5.PubMedCrossRef

*Linde, K., & Alfermann, D. (2014). Single versus combined cognitive and physical activity effects on fluid cognitive abilities of healthy older adults: A 4-month randomized controlled trial with follow-up. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 22(3), 302–313. doi:10.1123/JAPA.2012-0149.PubMedCrossRef

Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks: CA. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Litvan, I., Goldman, J.G., Tröster, A.I., Schmand, B.A., Weintraub, D., Petersen, R.C., … & Emre, M. (2012). Diagnostic criteria for mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease: Movement Disorder Society Task Force guidelines. Movement Disorders, 27(3), 349-356. doi:10.1002/mds.24893.

Madden, D. J. (1992). Four to ten milliseconds per year: Age-related slowing of visual word identification. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 47(2), P59–P68. doi:10.1093/geronj/47.2.P59.

*Mahncke, H. W., Connor, B. B., Appelman, J., Ahsanuddin, O. N., Hardy, J. L., Wood, R. A., et al. (2006). Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity-based training program: A randomized, controlled study. PNAS, 103(33), 12523–12528. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605194103.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Margrett, J. A., & Willis, S. L. (2006). In-home cognitive training with older married couples: Individual versus collaborative learning. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 13(2), 173–195. doi:10.1080/138255890969285.CrossRef

Martin, M., Clare, L., Altgassen, A. M., Cameron, M. H., & Zehnder, F. (2011). Cognition-based interventions for healthy older people and people with mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006220.pub2.

Mayeda, E. R., Karter, A. J., Huang, E. S., Moffet, H. H., Haan, M. N., & Whitmer, R. A. (2014). Racial/ethnic differences in dementia risk among older type 2 diabetic patients: The diabetes and aging study. Diabetes Care, 37(4), 1009–1015. doi:10.2337/dc13-0215/-/DC1.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*McAvinue, L. P., Golemme, M., Castorina, M., Tatti, E., Pigni, F. M., Salomone, S., et al. (2013). An evaluation of a working memory training scheme in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5(20). doi:10.3389/fnagi.2013.00020.

*McDougall, G. J., Becker, H., Pituch, K., Acee, T. W., Vaughan, P. W., & Delville, C. L. (2010). The SeniorWISE study: Improving everyday memory in older adults. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 24(5), 291–306. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2009.11.001.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Meijer, W. A., van Boxtel, M. P., Van Gerven, P. W., van Hooren, S. A., & Jolles, J. (2009). Interaction effects of education and health status on cognitive change: A 6-year follow-up of the Maastricht aging study. Aging & Mental Health, 13(4), 521–529. doi:10.1080/13607860902860821.CrossRef

Melby-Lervag, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 270–281. doi:10.1037/a0028228.PubMedCrossRef

Miller, L. S., Brown, C., Mitchell, M., & Williamson, G. (2013a). Activities of daily living are associated with older adult cognitive status: Caregiver versus self reports. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 32(1), 3–30. doi:10.1177/0733464811405495.

*Miller, K. J., Dye, R. V., Kim, J., Jennings, J. L., O’Toole, E., Wong, J., & Siddarth, P. (2013b). Effect of a computerized brain exercise program on cognitive performance in older adults. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(7), 655–663. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2013.01.077.

Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264–269. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135.PubMedCrossRef

*Mohs, R. C., Ashman, T. A., Jantzen, K., Albert, M., Brandt, J., Gordon, B., et al. (1998). A study of the efficacy of a comprehensive memory enhancement program in healthy elderly programs. Psychiatry Research, 77(3), 183–195.PubMedCrossRef

*Moro, V., Condoleo, M. T., Sala, F., Pernigo, S., Moretto, G., & Gambina, G. (2012). Cognitive stimulation in a-MCI: An experimental study. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 27(2), 121–130. doi:10.1177/1533317512441386.PubMedCrossRef

*Moro, V., Condoleo, M. T., Valbusa, V., Broggio, E., Moretto, G., & Gambina, G. (2015). Cognitive stimulation of executive functions in mild cognitive impairment: Specific efficacy and impact in memory. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 30(2), 153–164. doi:10.1177/1533317514539542.PubMedCrossRef

Morris, J. C. (1993). The clinical dementia Rating (CDR): Current version and scoring rules. Neurology, 43(11), 2412–2414.PubMedCrossRef

*Mozolic, J. L., Long, A. B., Morgan, A. R., Rawley-Payne, M., & Laurienti, P. J. (2011). A cognitive training intervention improves modality-specific attention in a randomized controlled trial of healthy older adults. Neurobiology of Aging, 32(4), 655–668. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.04.013.PubMedCrossRef

*van Muijden, J., Band, G. P. H., & Hommel, B. (2012). Online games training aging brains: Limited transfer to cognitive control functions. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6(221). doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00221.

*Nouchi, R., Yaki, Y., Takeuchi, H., Hashizume, H., Akitsuki, Y., Shigemune, Y., et al. (2012). Brain training games improves executive functions and processing speed in the elderly: A randomized controlled trial. PloS One, 7(1), e29676. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029676.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Nyberg L. (2005). Cognitive training in healthy aging: A cognitive neuroscience perspective. In Cabeza R. L. Nyberg, & D.C. Park (Eds.), Cognitive neuroscience of aging (309-321). New York: Oxford University Press.

*Olchik, M. R., Farina, J., Steibel, N., Teixeira, A. R., & Yassuda, M. S. (2013). Memory training (MT) in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) generates changes in cognitive performance. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 56(3), 442–447. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2012.11.007.PubMedCrossRef

Owsley, C., Sloane, M., McGwin Jr., G., & Ball, K. (2002). Timed instrumental activities of daily living tasks: Relationship to cognitive function and everyday performance assessments in older adults. Gerontology, 48(4), 254–265.PubMedCrossRef

Papp, K., Walsh, S., & Snyder, P. (2009). Immediate and delayed effects of cognitive interventions in healthy elderly: A review of current literature and future directions. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 5(1), 50–60. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2008.10.008.CrossRef

Park, D. C., Gutchess, A. H., Meade, M. L., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2007). Improving cognitive function in older adults: Nontraditional approaches. Journals of Jerontology: Series B, 62B(Special issue 1), 45–52.CrossRef

*Payne, B. R. (2014). The effects of verbal working memory training on language comprehension in older adulthood (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Urbana Illinois: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Petersen, R.C. (2002). Mild cognitive impairment: Transition from aging to Alzheimer's disease. In K. Iqbal, S.S. Sisodia, and B. Winblad (Eds.). Alzheimer's disease: Advanced in etiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutics (pp. 141-151). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/0470846453.ch14.

Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183–194.PubMedCrossRef

Petersen, R.C. & Negash, S. (2008). Mild cognitive impairment: An overview. CNS Spectrums, 13(1), 45-53.

Petersen, R.C., Doody, R., Kurz, A., Mohs, R.C., Morris, J.C., Rabins, PV., … & Winblad, B. (2001). Current concepts in mild cognitive impairment. Archives of Neurology, 58(12), 1985-1992.

Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., & Kokmen, E. (1999). Mild cognitive impairment: Clinical characterization and outcome. Archives of Neurology, 56(3), 303–308.PubMedCrossRef

Puente, A. N., Terry, D. P., Faraco, C. C., Brown, C. L., & Miller, L. S. (2014). Functional impairment in MCI evidence using performance-based measurement. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 27(4), 253–258. doi:10.1177/0891988714532016.PubMedCrossRef

R Core Team. (2016). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing https://www.R-project.org/.

Raz, N., & Lindenberger, U. (2013). Life-span plasticity of the brain and cognition: From questions to evidence and back. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 2195–2200. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.10.003.PubMedCrossRef

Rebok, G. (2008). Cognitive training: Influence on neuropsychological and brain function in later life. In State-of-Science review: SR:E22 UK. Government Foresight Mental Capital and Mental Wellbeing: Project. Government Office for Science.

Rebok, G. W., Langbaum, J. B. S., Jones, R. N., Gross, A. L., Parisi, J. M., Spira, A. P., et al. (2012). Memory training in the ACTIVE study: How much is needed and who benefits? Journal of Aging and Health, 25(8S), 21S–42S. doi:10.1177/0898264312461937.PubMed

Reijnders, J., van Heugten, C., & van Boxtel, M. (2013). Cognitive interventions in healthy older adults and people with mild cognitive impairment. Ageing Research Reviews, 12(1), 263–275. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2012.07.003.PubMedCrossRef

*Richmond, L. L., Morrison, A. B., Chein, J. M., & Olson, I. R. (2011). Working memory training and transfer in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 26(4), 813–822. doi:10.1037/a0023631.PubMedCrossRef

*Rizkalla, M. N. (2015). Cognitive training in the elderly: A randomized trial to evaluate the efficacy of a self-administered cognitive training program. Aging & Mental Health. doi:10.1080/13607863.2015.1118679.

*Rojas, G. J., Villar, V., Iturry, M., Harris, P., Serrano, C. M., Herrera, J. A., & Allegri, R. F. (2013). Efficacy of a cognitive intervention program in patients with mild cognitive impairment. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(5), 825–831. doi:10.1017/S1041610213000045.PubMedCrossRef

*Rosen, A. C., Sugiura, L., Kramer, J. H., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2011). Cognitive training changes hippocampal function in mild cognitive impairment: A pilot study. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 26(s3), 349–357. doi:10.3233/JAD-2011-0009.PubMedPubMedCentral

Rosenberg, M. (2005). The file-drawer problem revisited: A general weighted method for calculating fail-safe numbers in meta-analysis. Evolution, 59(2), 464–468.PubMedCrossRef

Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.CrossRef

Royall, D., Lauterbach, E., Kaufer, D., Malloy, P., Coburn, K., & Black, K. (2007). The cognitive correlates of functional status: A review from the committee on research of the American neuropsychiatric association. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 19(3), 249–265.PubMedCrossRef

*Sandberg, P., Ronnlund, M., Nyberg, L., & Stigsdotter Neely, A. (2014). Executive process training in young and old adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 21(5), 577–605. doi:10.1080/13825585.2013.839777.CrossRef

Sanz Simon, S., Yokomiza, J. E., & Bottino, C. M. C. (2012). Cognitive intervention in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(4), 1163–1178. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.01.007.CrossRef

Schaie, K. W. (1996). Intellectual development in adulthood: The Seattle longitudinal study. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Schaie, K. W., & Willis, S. L. (1986). Can decline in intellectual functioning be reversed? Developmental Psychology, 22, 223–232.CrossRef

Schaie, K., Willis, S., & Caskie, G. (2004). The Seattle longitudinal study: Relationship between personality and cognition. Neuropsychology of Cognition, 11(2–3), 304–324.CrossRef

*Scogin, F., & Prohaska, M. (1992). The efficacy of self-taught memory training for community-dwelling older adults. Educational Gerontology, 18(8), 751–766.CrossRef

*Scogin, F., Storandt, M., & Lott, L. (1985). Memory-skills training, memory complaints, and depression in older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 40(5), 562–568.PubMedCrossRef

Sharp, E. S., & Gatz, M. (2011). The relationship between education and dementia: An updated systematic review. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 25(4), 289–304. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e318211c83c.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Shatil, E. (2013). Does combined cognitive training and physical activity training enhance cognitive abilities more than either alone? A four-condition randomized controlled trial among healthy older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5(8). doi:10.3389/fnagi.2013.00008.

*Shatil, E., Mikulecka, J., Bellotti, F., & Bures, V. (2014). Novel television-based cognitive training improves working memory and executive function. PloS One, 9(7), e101472. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101472.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Smith, G. E., Housen, P., Yaffe, K., Ruff, R., Kennison, R. F., Mahncke, H. W., & Zelinski, E. M. (2009). A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: Results from the improvement in memory with plasticity-based adaptive cognitive training (IMPACT) study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57(4), 594–603. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02167.x.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Stepankova, H., Lukkavsky, J., Buschkuehl, M., Kopevek, M., Rippova, D., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014). The malleability of working memory and visuospatial skills: A randomized controlled study in older adults. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1049–1059. doi:10.1037/a0034913.PubMedCrossRef

Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 448-460. doi:10.1017/S1355617701020240.PubMedCrossRef

*Stern, Y., Blumen, H. M., Rich, L. W., Richard, A., Herzberg, G., & Gopher, D. (2011). Space fortress game training and executive control in older adults: A pilot intervention. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 18(6), 653–677. doi:10.1080/13825585.2011.613450.

Sterne, J., Gavaghan, D., & Egger, M. (2000). Publication and related bias in meta-analysis: Power of statistical tests and prevalence in the literature. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 53(11), 1119–1129.PubMedCrossRef

Sterne, J., Sutton, A.J., Ioannidis, J.P.A., Terrin, N., Jones, D.R., Lau, J., ... & Higgins, J.P.T. (2011). Recommendations for examining and interpreting funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BJM, 343. doi:10.1136/bjm.d4002.

*Stigsdotter, A., & Bäckman, L. (1989). Multifactorial memory training with older adults: How to foster maintenance of improved performance. Gerontology, 35, 260–267.PubMedCrossRef

*Stigsdotter, N. A., & Bäckman, L. (1993). Maintenance of gains following multifactorial and unifactorial memory training in late adulthood. Educational Gerontology, 19(2), 105–117.CrossRef

Stigsdotter Neely, A., & Bäckman, L. (1995). Effects of multifactorial memory training in old age: Generalizability across tasks and individuals. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 50B(3), P134–P140.CrossRef

Stott, J., & Spector, A. (2011). A review of the effectiveness of memory interventions in mild cognitive impairment. International Psychogeriatrics, 23(4), 526–538. doi:10.1017/S1041610210001973.PubMedCrossRef

Suresh, K. P. (2011). An overview of randomization techniques: An unbiased assessment of outcome in clinical research. J. Hum. Reprod. Sci., 4(1), 8–11. doi:10.4103/0974-1208.82352.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

*Sutter, C., Zollig, J., & Martin, M. (2013). Plasticity of verbal fluency in older adults: A 90-minute telephone-based intervention. Gerontology, 59(1), 53–63. doi:10.1159/000342199.PubMedCrossRef

Tardif, S., & Simard, M. (2011). Cognitive stimulation program in healthy elderly: A review. International Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 2011. doi:10.4061/2011/378934.

Teixeira, C. L., Gobbi, L. B., Corazza, D. I., Stella, F., Costa, J. R., & Gobbi, S. (2012). Non-pharmacological interventions on cognitive functions in older people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54(1), 175–180. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2011.02.014.PubMedCrossRef

Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2011). Neurocognitive functions and everyday functions change together in old age. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 368–377. doi:10.1037/a0022348.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Tucker-Drob, E. M., Johnson, K. E., & Jones, R. N. (2009). The cognitive reserve hypothesis: A longitudinal examination of age-associated declines in reasoning and processing speed. Developmental Psychology, 45(2), 431–446. doi:10.1037/a0014012.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Tzuang, M., Owusu, J., Spira, A.P., Albert, M.S., & Rebok, G.W. (in press). Cognitive training for ethnic minority older adults in the U.S.: A review. The Gerontologist.

*Vance, D., Dawson, J., Wadley, V., Edwards, J., Roenker, D., Rizzo, M., & Ball, K. (2007). The accelerate study: The longitudinal effect of speed of processing training on cognitive performance in older adults. Rehabilitation Psychology, 52(1), 89–96. doi:10.1037/0090-5550.52.1.89.CrossRef

Verhaeghen, P., Marcoen, A., & Goossens, L. (1992). Improving memory performance in the aged through mnemonic training: A meta-analytic study. Psychology and Aging, 7(2), 242–251.PubMedCrossRef

*Vidovich, M. R., Lautenschlager, N. T., Flicker, L., Clare, L., McCaul, K., & Almeida, O. P. (2015). The PACE study: A randomized clinical trial of cognitive activity strategy training for older people with mild cognitive impairment. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(4), 360–372. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2014.04.002.PubMedCrossRef

Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 26(3), 1–48.

*Welch, D. C. (1998). The effects of object location training on spatial self-efficacy, location recall, and strategy usage (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida.

West, R. L., & Tomer, A. (1989). Everyday memory problems of healthy older adults: Characteristics of a successful intervention. In G. C. Gilmore, P. J. Whitehouse, & M. L. Wykle (Eds.), Memory, aging, and dementia: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 74–98). New York: Springer Publishing.

Whalley, L. J., Dick, F. D., & McNeill, G. (2006). A life-course approach to the aetiology of late-onset dementias. Lancet Neurology, 5(1), 87–96.PubMedCrossRef

*Wilkinson, A. J., & Yang, L. (2012). Plasticity of inhabitation in older adults: Retest practice and transfer effects. Psychology and Aging, 27(3), 606–615. doi:10.1037/a0025926.PubMedCrossRef

Williams, R. L. (2000). A note on robust variance estimation for cluster-correlated data. Biometrics, 56(2), 645–646.PubMedCrossRef

Williams, K., & Kemper, S. (2010). Exploring interventions to reduce cognitive decline in aging. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 48(5), 42–51. doi:10.3928/02793695-20100331-03.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Willis, S. L. (2001). Methodological issues in behavioural intervention research in the elderly. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (78–108) (5th ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Willis, S. L., & Caskie, G. I. L. (2013). Reasoning training in the ACTIVE study: How much is needed and who benefits? Journal of Aging and Health, 25(8S), 43S–64S. doi:10.1177/0898264313503987.PubMedCrossRef

Wilson, D.B. (2006). Meta-analysis macros for SAS, SPSS, and Stata. Retrieved from: http://mason.gmu.edu/~dwilsonb/ma.html.

Wilson, K. E., & Dishman, R. K. (2015). Personality and physical activity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 230–242. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.023.CrossRef

Winblad, B., Palmer, K., Kivipelto, M., Jelic, V., Fratiglioni, L., Wahlund, L.-O., et al. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment—Beyond controversies, towards a consensus: Report of the International working group on mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 240–246.PubMedCrossRef

Yaffe, K., Falvey, C., Harris, T. B., Newman, A., Satterfield, S., Koster, A., et al. (2013). Effect of socioeconomic disparities on incidence of dementia among biracial older adults: Prospective study. BMJ, 347, f7051. doi:10.1136/bmj.f7051.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Yesavage, J. A. (1982). Degree of dementia and improvement with memory training. [clinical comments]. Clinical Gerontologist, 1(2), 77–80. doi:10.1300/J018v01n02_08.

Yesavage, J. A., Sheikh, J. I., Friedman, L., & Tanke, E. (1990). Learning mnemonics: Roles of aging and subtle cognitive impairment. Psychology and Aging, 5(1), 133–137.PubMedCrossRef

Zehnder, F., Martin, M., Altgassen, M., & Clare, L. (2009). Memory training effects in old age as markers of plasticity: A meta-analysis. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27(5), 507–520. doi:10.3233/RNN-2009-0491.PubMed

Zelinski, E. M. (2009). Far transfer in cognitive training of older adults. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27(5), 455–471. doi:10.3233/RNN-2009-0495.PubMedPubMedCentral

Zelinski, E. M., & Reyes, R. (2009). Cognitive benefits of computer games for older adults. Geron, 8(4), 220–235. doi:10.4017/gt.2009.08.04.004.00.

*Zimmerman, N., Netto, T. M., Amodeo, M. T., Ska, B., & Fonseca, R. P. (2014a). Working memory training and poetry-based stimulation programs: Are there differences in cognitive outcome in healthy older adults? NeuroRehabilitation, 35(1), 159–170. doi:10.3233/NRE-141104.

*Zimmerman, R., Gschwandtner, U., Benz, N., Hatz, F., Schindler, C., Taub, E., & Fuhr, P. (2014b). Cognitive training in Parkinson disease: Cognition-specific vs. nonspecific computer training. Neurology, 82(14), 1219–1226.CrossRef

*Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Rose, N. S., Putzmann, J., Pydde, A., & Kliegel, M. (2014). Working memory training and transfer in older adults: Effects of age, baseline performance, and training gains. Developmental Psychology, 50(1), 304–315. doi:10.1037/a0032982.PubMedCrossRef

Zolyniak, N., Schulte-Gocking, H., & Kraft, E. (2014). Neuroplasticity in aging: Implications for behavioral and lifestyle combined interventions. Top. Geriatr. Rehabil., 30(1), 15–17. doi:10.1097/TGR.0000000000000004.CrossRef

Titel: Cognitive Interventions for Cognitively Healthy, Mildly Impaired, and Mixed Samples of Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized-Controlled Trials
verfasst von: Catherine M. Mewborn
Cutter A. Lindbergh
L. Stephen Miller
Publikationsdatum: 01.12.2017
Verlag: Springer US
Erschienen in: Neuropsychology Review / Ausgabe 4/2017
Print ISSN: 1040-7308
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-6660
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-017-9350-8

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

Hirnblutung unter DOAK und VKA ähnlich bedrohlich

17.05.2024 Direkte orale Antikoagulanzien Nachrichten

Kommt es zu einer nichttraumatischen Hirnblutung, spielt es keine große Rolle, ob die Betroffenen zuvor direkt wirksame orale Antikoagulanzien oder Marcumar bekommen haben: Die Prognose ist ähnlich schlecht.

Thrombektomie auch bei großen Infarkten von Vorteil

16.05.2024 Ischämischer Schlaganfall Nachrichten

Auch ein sehr ausgedehnter ischämischer Schlaganfall scheint an sich kein Grund zu sein, von einer mechanischen Thrombektomie abzusehen. Dafür spricht die LASTE-Studie, an der Patienten und Patientinnen mit einem ASPECTS von maximal 5 beteiligt waren.

Schwindelursache: Massagepistole lässt Otholiten tanzen

14.05.2024 Benigner Lagerungsschwindel Nachrichten

Wenn jüngere Menschen über ständig rezidivierenden Lagerungsschwindel klagen, könnte eine Massagepistole der Auslöser sein. In JAMA Otolaryngology warnt ein Team vor der Anwendung hochpotenter Geräte im Bereich des Nackens.

Schützt Olivenöl vor dem Tod durch Demenz?

10.05.2024 Morbus Alzheimer Nachrichten

Konsumieren Menschen täglich 7 Gramm Olivenöl, ist ihr Risiko, an einer Demenz zu sterben, um mehr als ein Viertel reduziert – und dies weitgehend unabhängig von ihrer sonstigen Ernährung. Dafür sprechen Auswertungen zweier großer US-Studien.

Update Neurologie

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Die Highlights vom Kongress des American College of Cardiology 2024

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 4/2017

Diagnostic Accuracy of Memory Measures in Alzheimer’s Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The Efficacy of Cognitive Intervention in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): a Meta-Analysis of Outcomes on Neuropsychological Measures

Editorial Introduction to the Special Issue on Neuropsychological Assessment in Aging

Is Obstructive Sleep Apnoea Related to Neuropsychological Function in Healthy Older Adults? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Neuropsychological Measures that Predict Progression from Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer's type dementia in Older Adults: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Detectable Neuropsychological Differences in Early Preclinical Alzheimer’s Disease: A Meta-Analysis