Background
Women’s education and child malnutrition
Methods
Study setting
Data source and data collection
Ethical considerations
Variables and measurement
Child level characteristics
Maternal demographic characteristics
Maternal health knowledge and seeking behaviour
Household characteristics
Community characteristics
Analytical techniques
Results
Descriptive statistics for child stunting
Factor | Category | Stunted (%) | Number of Subjects | % |
---|---|---|---|---|
Child’s Sex
| Male | 44.2 | 2410 | 50.5 |
Female | 34.2 | 2360 | 49.5 | |
Slum
| Korogocho | 40.9 | 2490 | 52.2 |
Viwandani | 37.5 | 2280 | 47.8 | |
Mother’s Education level
| Primary and below | 43.1 | 2,961 | 76.7 |
Secondary + | 36.9 | 897 | 23.3 | |
Mother's age
| 15-19 | 39.9 | 406 | 10.3 |
20-24 | 40.1 | 1415 | 35.9 | |
25-29 | 42.2 | 1185 | 30.1 | |
30-34 | 42.9 | 564 | 14.3 | |
35 > | 45.6 | 373 | 9.5 | |
Mother’s Marital Status
| Currently in union | 37.8 | 3954 | 82.9 |
Ever in union | 48.3 | 375 | 7.9 | |
Never married | 44.8 | 440 | 9.2 | |
Pregnancy Intentions
| Wanted now (Ref) | 35.2 | 2378 | 50.0 |
Wanted later | 43.5 | 1773 | 37.3 | |
Not at all | 42.3 | 608 | 12.8 | |
Ante-natal Visits
| Less than 4 | 38.7 | 2460 | 54.9 |
4 or more | 38.5 | 2018 | 45.1 | |
Place of delivery
| Health Facility | 37.4 | 3390 | 71.2 |
TBA & Home | 44.6 | 1239 | 26.0 | |
Others(enroute to hospital) | 34.9 | 132 | 2.8 | |
Mother’s Parity
| 1 birth | 34.5 | 1633 | 34.3 |
2 births | 40.6 | 1325 | 27.8 | |
3 and above | 42.5 | 1806 | 37.9 | |
Child’s birth weight
| Less than 2500 | 61.8 | 220 | 7.0 |
Above 2500 | 36.2 | 2940 | 93.0 | |
Knowledge when to introduce other foods
| No | 41.3 | 1477 | 31.0 |
Yes | 38.4 | 3293 | 69.0 | |
Social Economic Status
| Lowest | 42.5 | 812 | 27.3 |
Middle | 44.5 | 991 | 33.3 | |
Highest | 39.7 | 1172 | 39.4 | |
Mother’s Ethnicity
| Kikuyu | 43.2 | 1057 | 26.7 |
Luhya | 39 | 689 | 17.4 | |
Luo | 41.5 | 768 | 19.4 | |
Kamba | 42.5 | 835 | 21.1 | |
Others | 40.6 | 606 | 15.3 |
Factor | Category | Odds ratio | 95 % Conf. Interval | p-values |
---|---|---|---|---|
Child’s Sex
| Female (ref.) | - | ||
Male | 1.520 | (1.353 1.710) | 0.000 | |
Slum
| Viwandani (ref.) | |||
Korogocho | 1.157 | (1.029 1.299) | 0.014 | |
Mother’s Education
| Secondary + (ref.) | - | ||
Primary and below | 1.281 | (1.096 1.498) | 0.002 | |
Mother's age
| 15-19 (ref.) | - | ||
20-24 | 1.010 | (0.806 1.265) | 0.931 | |
25-29 | 1.099 | (0.874 1.383) | 0.419 | |
30-34 | 1.132 | (0.873 1.467) | 0.349 | |
35 > | 1.261 | (0.949 1.677) | 0.11 | |
Mother’s Marital status
| Currently in union (ref.) | - | ||
Ever in union | 1.536 | (1.242 1.988) | 0.000 | |
Never married | 1.335 | (1.094 1.628) | 0.004 | |
Pregnancy Intentions
| Wanted now (ref.) | - | ||
Wanted later | 1.420 | (1.252 1.611) | 0.000 | |
Not at all | 1.348 | (1.124 1.616) | 0.001 | |
Ante natal Visits
| Above 4 (ref.) | - | ||
Less than 4 | 1.008 | (0.893 1.138) | 0.894 | |
Place of delivery
| Health Facility (ref.) | - | ||
TBA & Home | 1.343 | (1.177 1.532) | 0.000 | |
Others | 0.894 | (0.621 1.287) | 0.547 | |
Mother’s Parity
| One birth (ref.) | - | ||
2 births | 1.299 | (1.118 1.509) | 0.001 | |
3 and above | 1.406 | (1.225 1.615) | 0.000 | |
Child’s birth weight
| Above 2500 (ref.) | - | ||
Less than 2500 | 2.848 | (2.148 3.777) | 0.000 | |
Knowledge when to introduce other foods
| Yes (ref.) | - | ||
No | 1.131 | (0.999 1.281) | 0.054 | |
Social Economic Status
| Lowest (ref.) | - | ||
Middle | 1.022 | (0.924 1.131) | 0.674 | |
Highest | 0.843 | (0.765 0.928) | 0.000 | |
Mother’s Ethnicity
| Kikuyu (ref.) | - | ||
Luhya | 0.938 | (0.845 1.041) | 0.229 | |
Luo | 0.927 | (0.837 1.026) | 0.144 | |
Kamba | 0.996 | (0.901 1.100) | 0.934 | |
Others | 0.818 | (0.735 0.910) | 0.000 |
Multiple logistic regressions results (Effect of mother’s education on child stunting)
Factor | Model 1 Coef. (95 % CI) | p-val | Model 2 Coef. (95 % CI) | p-val | Model 3 Coef. (95 % CI) | p-val |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mother Education
| ||||||
Secondary + (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Primary and below | 1.29 (1.11, 1.51) | 0.001 | 1.30 (1.11, 1.52) | 0.001 | 1.26 (1.08, 1.48) | 0.004 |
Child’s Sex
| ||||||
Female (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Male | 1.57 (1.40, 1.77) | 0.000 | 1.57 (1.40, 1.77) | 0.000 | ||
Child’s Birth Weight
| ||||||
Above 2500 (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Less than 2500 | 2.80 (2.12, 3.70) | 0.000 | 2.72 (2.06 , 3.60) | 0.000 | ||
Mother's Age
| ||||||
15-19 (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
20-24 | 1.03 (0.83, 1.27) | 0.818 | ||||
25-29 | 1.04 (0.82, 1.33) | 0.734 | ||||
30-34 | 1.04 (0.78, 1.39) | 0.787 | ||||
35 > | 1.13 (0.82, 1.56) | 0.471 | ||||
Mother’s Marital Status
| ||||||
Curr. in union (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Ever in union | 1.47 (1.18, 1.84) | 0.001 | ||||
Never married | 1.56 (1.25, 1.94) | 0.000 | ||||
Mother’s Parity
| ||||||
First birth (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
2 births | 1.31 (1.11, 1.55) | 0.002 | ||||
3 and above | 1.39 (1.14, 1.69) | 0.001 | ||||
Mother’s Ethnicity
| ||||||
Kikuyu (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Luhya | 0.91 (0.75, 1.11) | 0.350 | ||||
Luo | 0.88 (0.73, 1.05) | 0.162 | ||||
Kamba | 1.03 (0.85, 1.23) | 0.781 | ||||
Others | 1.01 (0.44, 2.30) | 0.978 | ||||
Number of observations
|
4770
|
4770
|
4770
| |||
Log-Likelihood
|
−3165.2
|
−3105.7
|
−3080.69
| |||
Factor
|
Model 4 Coef. (95 % CI)
|
p-val
|
Model 5 Coef. (95 % CI)
|
p-val
|
Model 6 Coef. (95 % CI)
|
p-val
|
Mother’s Education
| ||||||
Secondary + (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Primary and below | 1.24 (1.05, 1.46) | 0.010 | 1.22 (1.03,1.43) | 0.018 | 1.21 (1.02,1.43) | 0.025 |
Child’s Sex
| ||||||
Female (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Male | 1.59 (1.41, 1.80) | 0.000 | 1.60 (1.42,1.80) | 0.000 | 1.60 (1.42,1.80) | 0.000 |
Child’s Birth Weight
| ||||||
Above 2500 (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Less than 2500 | 2.99 (2.25, 3.97) | 0.000 | 2.96 (2.23,3.93) | 0.000 | 2.96 (2.23,3.93) | 0.000 |
Mother's Age
| ||||||
15-19 (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
20-24 | 1.04 (0.84, 1.29) | 0.689 | 1.05 (0.85,1.30) | 0.655 | 1.05 (0.85,1.30) | 0.642 |
25-29 | 1.10 (0.86, 1.41) | 0.426 | 1.12 (0.88,1.43) | 0.357 | 1.12 (0.88,1.44) | 0.349 |
30-34 | 1.11 (0.83, 1.48) | 0.494 | 1.12 (0.84,1.51) | 0.437 | 1.12 (0.84,1.51) | 0.432 |
35 > | 1.20 (0.87, 1.67) | 0.270 | 0.21 (0.87,1.68) | 0.258 | 1.21 (0.87,1.68) | 0.254 |
Mother’s Marital status
| ||||||
Currently in union (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Ever in union | 1.41 (1.13, 1.77) | 0.003 | 1.37 (1.09,1.72) | 0.007 | 1.36 (1.09,1.71) | 0.007 |
Never married | 1.64 (1.14, 1.78) | 0.002 | 1.35 (1.08,1.70) | 0.009 | 1.35 (1.08,1.69) | 0.010 |
Mother’s Parity
| ||||||
First birth (ref.) | ||||||
2 births | 1.23 (1.04, 1.47) | 0.016 | 1.21 (1.02,1.44) | 0.028 | 1.21 (1.02,1.44) | 0.028 |
3 and above | 1.22 (1.00, 1.49) | 0.054 | 1.16 (0.95,1.43) | 0.151 | 1.16 (0.94,1.42) | 0.156 |
Mother’s Ethnicity
| ||||||
Kikuyu (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Luhya | 0.83 (0.68, 1.01) | 0.063 | 0.82 (0.67,1.00) | 0.047 | 0.74 (0.67,1.00) | 0.047 |
Luo | 0.78 (0.65, 0.95) | 0.013 | 0.77 (0.64,0.94) | 0.008 | 0.77 (0.64,0.93) | 0.008 |
Kamba | 0.97 (0.80, 1.17) | 0.743 | 0.98 (0.81,1.18) | 0.822 | 0.99 (0.82,1.20) | 0.924 |
Others | 0.97 (0.42, 2.21) | 0.937 | 0.99 (0.43, 2.26) | 0.975 | 0.99 (0.43,2.26) | 0.980 |
Pregnancy Intentions
| ||||||
Wanted now (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Wanted later | 1.38 (1.20, 1.58) | 0.000 | 1.37 (1.19,1.57) | 0.000 | 1.36 (1.19,1.56) | 0.000 |
Not ever wanted | 1.19 (0.96, 1.44) | 0.113 | 1.17 (0.95,1.43) | 0.132 | 1.16 (0.95,1.42) | 0.157 |
Ante-natal Visits
| ||||||
Above 4 (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Less than 4 | 0.95 (0.84, 1.08) | 0.454 | 0.95 (0.83,1.07) | 0.398 | 0.95 (0.83,1.07) | 0.384 |
Place of Delivery
| ||||||
Health Facility (ref.) | ||||||
TBA & Home | 1.39 (1.20, 1.61) | 0.000 | 1.38 (1.19, 1.60) | 0.000 | 1.39 (1.20,1.61) | 0.000 |
Others (enroute to hospital) | 0.98 (0.67, 1.42) | 0.903 | 1.01 (0.69,1.47) | 0.958 | 1.02 (0.70,1.50) | 0.905 |
Knowledge when to introduce other foods
| ||||||
Yes (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
No | 1.07 (0.94, 1.22) | 0.299 | 1.07 (0.94,1.22) | 0.324 | 1.07 (0.94,1.22) | 0.317 |
Social Economic Status
| ||||||
Lowest (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Middle | 0.93 (0.80,1.07) | 0.312 | 0.93 (0.80,1.08) | 0.333 | ||
Highest | 0.77 (0.66,0.91) | 0.001 | 0.78 (0.66,0.66) | 0.002 | ||
Slum of Residence
| ||||||
Korogocho (ref.) | - | - | - | |||
Viwandani | 0.96 (0.84,1.11) | 0.590 | ||||
Number of observations
|
4770
|
4770
|
4770
| |||
Log-Likelihood
|
−3055.98
|
−3050.38
|
−3050.2
|