Introduction
Hypertension is one of the risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD), its prevalence has doubled globally in the last three decades [
1]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), hypertension accounts for 12.8% of all deaths [
2]. Factors contributing to hypertension include sedentary lifestyles, unhealthy diets that are high in fat and low in fiber, ethnicity, inappropriate medication use, and stress [
3,
4]. Moreover, hypertension can cause damage to the body before symptoms appear, and if left untreated, it can cause several health complications, including coronary heart disease, heart failure, stroke, dementia, kidney failure, etc. [
5‐
7]. Despite a significant progress in the development of antihypertensive medications, efficient dose regimens, and improvements in lifestyle, managing hypertension is still challenging. One out of every five hypertensive patients responds to treatment while the remaining four develop resistance to the treatment [
8].
The STEPs-World-Health-Survey revealed that the Qatari population is afflicted by various comorbidities, including obesity (28.8%), high cholesterol (24.7%), and hypertension (14.4%) [
9]. In addition, non-communicable diseases are the leading cause of death in Qatar, with a hypertension mortality rate of 6.2 per 100,000 males [
10,
11]. Hypertension is diagnosed in approximately 30% of patients aged 25 to 65 years at primary healthcare facilities, and the Stepwise survey indicates that women in Qatar have higher rates of hypertension compared to men [
9]. Hence, it is crucial to identify new targets for hypertension diagnosis and personalized treatment.
Saliva is a rich source of proteins, hormones, enzymes, desquamated epithelial cells, and millions of microbes [
12,
13]. Although it contains a wealth of resources that can be used to discover biomarkers, most of them remain untapped. Saliva-based biomarkers are highly accessible and non-invasive, making them useful for people of all ages, including infants and the elderly. On the other hand, blood-based biomarkers are invasive and must be sampled by medical personnel.
The cost of sequencing has significantly decreased, and the quality of sequences has improved due to recent advancements [
14,
15]. Progress in multi-omics technologies have enhanced our chances to discover novel biomarkers [
16‐
18]. The involvement of the salivary microbiome in maintaining blood pressure homeostasis can be used to explore novel biomarker discoveries in this field. With more than 700 distinct microorganisms, the salivary microbiome is the second most diverse component of the human microbiome following the gut. [
19]. Previous studies showed that the core salivary microbiome of healthy subjects includes
Streptococcus, Veillonella, Neisseria, and
Actinomyces [
20,
21]. Our previously published studies showed that
Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and
Proteobacteria were the common phyla,
Streptococcus, Neisseria, Rothia, Prevotella, Granulicatella, Haemophilus, and
Porphyromonas were the dominant genera in the Qatari population [
22,
23]. It is worth noting that lifestyle and diet can influence the salivary microbiome composition, which can reflect the host’s health status. This effect can manifest in oral diseases like periodontitis and dental caries, as well as systemic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cancer, and autoimmune disorders [
24‐
28].
Several studies have been conducted to explore the role of the gut microbiome in hypertension [
29‐
31]. However, despite the salivary microbiome’s accessibility, there is limited research on its involvement in hypertension. The study by Bondonno et al
. highlighted the importance of the salivary microbiome in hypertension by revealing a disruption in the nitrite-nitrate cycle following the use of antibacterial mouthwash [
31]. The study shows that both men and women who used antibacterial mouthwash experienced an increase in blood pressure due to the disruption in the nitric oxide (NO) pathway [
31]. In addition, a case–control study examining the relationship between salivary microbiome, hypertension, and salivary NO revealed that subjects with normal blood pressure (BP) had higher NO and more
Neisseria subflava than those with hypertension [
32]. In a recent study, Chen et al. assessed the role of the salivary microbiome in the pathogenesis of obstructive sleep apnea-associated hypertension (OSA-hypertension) and showed that
Haemophilus, Neisseria, Oribacterium, and
Lautropia were more enriched in hypertension patients compared to controls [
33]. Sohail et al. explored the salivary microbiome diversity changes on a limited sample size (n = 96) of hypertensive Qatari subjects and showed that
Prevotella and
Veillonella were significantly higher in the hypertension groups compared to the control group [
34].
In this study, we analyzed the salivary microbiome composition of 1190 Qatari participants, randomly selected from the Qatar Genome Project (QGP) cohort. Through the use of machine learning (ML) models, we were able to identify a signature in the salivary microbiome that is associated with elevated blood pressure. This research marks a significant advancement in the development of novel biomarkers that could be used for the diagnosis and treatment of hypertension.
Discussion
Hypertension is the third most crucial risk factor for stroke, CVD, and other diseases globally [
35]. However, despite the number of hypertension cases increasing worldwide, the mechanism of pathogenesis and effective treatments are still unclear. Previous studies have described the gut microbiome’s role in hypertension in animal and human models [
36‐
38]. However, studies focusing on the salivary microbiome changes during hypertension and their role in its pathogenesis remain sparse. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a study that analyzed the salivary microbiome of 1190 Qatari subjects participating in QGP. By examining the salivary microbiome, we hope to gain new insights into the relationship between hypertension and changes in the oral microbiome.
In accordance with the American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines, we stratified our cohort based on BP readings into four groups: normal, elevated, stage 1, and stage 2. We found that hypertensive individuals in the latter three groups were older and had a higher body mass index (BMI) compared to normotensive individuals. Though, it is widely reported that HTN is positively linked to increasing age. In this study, the selected participants were age matched with each group (Age range: Normal 19–64; Elevated 18–80; Stage1 19–69; Stage2 19–76) from the cohort of QGP. The dysbiosis is mainly due to an increase in blood pressure irrespective of age factor in this study. In Chinese population, obstructive sleep apnea patients with comorbid HTN showed dysbiosis of salivary microbiome than healthy control with same age group [
33]. A metanalysis of 4 cohorts study confirms that increased tendency HTN observed in women than men in their third decade of the life [
39]. Another observational study infers that specific oral microbes are associated with the baseline BP and increased risk of HTN in menopausal women [
40]. Based on these literature evidences, we infer that HTN and SM are associated/linked irrelevant of age factor. Our vascular system in addition, hypertensive individuals also had higher levels of C-peptide, HbA1C, glucose, and insulin and higher cholesterol levels than normotensive individuals. These findings are not surprising, as many studies have established a strong association between metabolic syndrome, which is characterized by a cluster of abnormal metabolic conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia [
41,
42] and hypertension.
In our study cohort, we found that alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels were significantly higher in the high BP groups than the normal BP group. ALP is a clinical marker of bone or hepatic diseases and is typically derived equally from the liver and bone in healthy individuals [
43]. Previous investigations have suggested that increased levels of ALP may be associated with vascular calcification, which may play a significant role in the development of vascular disease. Furthermore, previous studies indicated that cerebral small artery dysfunction and CVD are both associated with greater serum ALP levels [
44‐
46].
Numerous studies have explored the potential role of the gut microbiome in the pathophysiology of various diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and hypertension, among others [
47‐
50]. However, studies on the salivary microbiome have been conducted at a much lower level, and there have been very few studies on the role of the salivary microbiome in hypertension [
23,
34,
51,
52].
In our previous studies, we examined the salivary microbiome and found that
Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and
Proteobacteria were the predominant phyla, and
Streptococcus, Prevotella, Porphyromonas, and
Veillonella were the most common genera among the Qatari population [
22,
23,
53]. These findings underscore the need for further research to better understand the potential role of the salivary microbiome in hypertension and other diseases.
In our current study, we explored the diversity and microbial changes in the saliva of Qatari participants suffering from hypertension. Our results revealed that subjects with high BP (Elevated, Stage 1, and Stage 2) have significantly lower diversity in their salivary microbiome compared to those with normal BP. This reduction in microbial diversity was previously reported in subjects using chlorhexidine mouthwash and has been shown to positively correlate with increased BP by altering the abundance of nitrate-reducing bacteria [
54‐
56]. Furthermore, we found that
Prevotella, Neisseria, and
Haemophilus were significantly enriched in the normal BP group compared to the other groups, which are the most abundant microbial members of saliva and essential oral nitrate-reducing bacteria [
57,
58] to regulate BP in normal group. A comparative study between hypertensive and normotensive participants showed that
Prevotella is considerably elevated in the normotensive group [
59,
60]. A case–control study that assessed the link between salivary NO, hypertension, and the microbiome showed that
Neisseria subflava and salivary NO were significantly higher in normotensive when compared to hypertensive subjects [
32]. Our findings suggest that
Haemophilus and
Neisseria are essential oral nitrate-reducing bacteria that regulate systemic BP via the nitrate-nitrite-NO pathway [
61,
62]. A dysbiosis or reduction of these critical salivary bacteria that regulate BP may promote endothelial dysfunction and increase the risk of CVD.
On the other hand, Qatari participants with high BP displayed a notable increase in the abundance of
Atopobium, Bacteroides, and
Lactobacillus. Sohail et al. previously showed that
Atopobium was significantly overrepresented in the hypertensive group [
34]. Yan et al. also reported that
Bacteroides were significantly more abundant in the hypertensive group compared to controls [
50]. Similarly, Silveira-Nunes et al. showed that
Lactobacillus is significantly more prevalent in the Brazilian hypertensive cohort [
63].
We employed the random forest classifier, a supervised machine learning algorithm, to investigate whether the microbial signature we found between the groups can serve as biomarkers for hypertension. The classification models using six microbial features that were used together yielded an area under the receiver operating curve (AUC) value of 0.89 in the sensitivity–specificity plot. Our study is the first to predict the BP-associated salivary microbial marker using a Machine learning approach in the Qatari population. A cohort of hypertensive patients will be needed to further validate our findings.
PICRUSt-KEGG analysis revealed that the predictive microbial metabolic functions such as starch, and sucrose metabolism were increased in the hypertensive groups and that cysteine and methionine metabolism, as well as the sulfur metabolisms, were increased in the normal BP group. High starch and sucrose metabolic routes in hypertension groups suggest that those microbes will have a higher ability to extract more carbohydrates from the diet when present in the oral cavity and later convert the excess sugar into lipids [
64]. Hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia and insulin resistance are the factors positively associated with each other [
65]. The body's extra calories will cause cellular deaths of visceral adipocytes and be engulfed by macrophages to form crown-like structures [
66]. In addition, it induces the expression of TNF-Alfa and IL-6, and nitric oxide synthase [
67]. These compound changes might provide its pathophysiological association with hypertension, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia. It is also well-known that sulfur metabolism is involved in the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids such as cysteine and methionine to regulate the arterial blood pressure [
68]. PICRUSt-COG analysis revealed that the microbial clusters of orthologs such as COG 4362 (Nitric Oxide Synthase) were significantly higher in BP than in the normal groups. Nitric oxide synthase metabolizes arginine to produce Nitric Oxide, which regulates blood pressure through angiotensin-II [
69]. Negative correlation with LDL and COG4362 indicates its regulatory role to reduce the BP and CVD risk in normotensive group. In contrast, showed significantly negative correlation with COG-4362 in elevated, stage1 and stage2 groups. An imbalance in this cycle will lead to oxidative stress-mediated endothelial dysfunction. Our findings may provide insight into the role of salivary bacteria and their role in hypertension pathophysiology and progression.
Conclusions
Associations of salivary biomarkers with hypertension were assessed using a combination of 16S rRNA gene sequencing, in silico prediction, and ML-based models. Developing an early screening/treatment model for hypertension is essential to provide better healthcare for our patients. The salivary microbiome significantly influences host health through its involvement in many physiological and biological pathways. A profound understanding of this complex dynamic structure might improve our understanding of diseases and advance their diagnosis. In summary, our data show that the salivary microbiome composition was significantly different between the normal, elevated, stage1, and stage 2 hypertension groups, including Haemophilus, Prevotella, and Neisseria, which were found to be enriched in the normal BP group.
On the other hand, Bacteroides and Lactobacillus were enriched in the high BP group and were predicted to increase carbohydrate metabolic routes. Prevotella, Haemophilus, and Neisseria may act as protectors to regulate BP via nitric acid synthesis and regulation of the renin-angiotensin system. More experiments using in vitro and in vivo models are needed to confirm our findings and validate those mechanisms.
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