Why are kids with lupus at an increased risk of cardiovascular disease?

1.

Manzi S, Meilahn EN, Rairie JE, Conte CG, Medsger TA, Jansen-McWilliams L, D’Agostino RB, Kuller LH (1997) Age-specific incidence rates of myocardial infarction and angina in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with the Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol 145:408–415PubMedCrossRef

2.

Hak AE, Karlson EW, Feskanich D, Stampfer MJ, Costenbader KH (2009) Systemic lupus erythematosus and the risk of cardiovascular disease: results from the nurses’ health study. Arthritis Rheum 61:1396–1402PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

3.

Kamphuis S, Silverman ED (2010) Prevalence and burden of pediatric-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat Rev Rheumatol 6:538–546PubMedCrossRef

4.

Tucker LB, Menon S, Schaller JG, Isenberg DA (1995) Adult- and childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus: a comparison of onset, clinical features, serology, and outcome. Br J Rheumatol 34:866–872PubMedCrossRef

5.

Hiraki LT, Benseler SM, Tyrrell PN, Harvey E, Hebert D, Silverman ED (2009) Ethnic differences in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 36:2539–2546PubMedCrossRef

6.

Watson L, Leone V, Pilkington C, Tullus K, Rangaraj S, McDonagh JE, Gardner-Medwin J, Wilkinson N, Riley P, Tizard J, Armon K, Sinha MD, Ioannou Y, Archer N, Bailey K, Davidson J, Baildam EM, Cleary G, McCann LJ, Beresford MW, Juvenile-Onset UK, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Study Group (2012) Disease activity, severity, and damage in the UK juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus cohort. Arthritis Rheum 64:2356–2365PubMedCrossRef

7.

Amaral B, Murphy G, Ioannou Y, Isenberg DA (2014) A comparison of the outcome of adolescent and adult-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford) 53:1130–1135CrossRef

8.

Mina R, Brunner HI (2010) Pediatric lupus--are there differences in presentation, genetics, response to therapy, and damage accrual compared with adult lupus? Rheum Dis Clin N Am 36:53–80, vii–viii CrossRef

9.

Borchers AT, Keen CL, Shoenfeld Y, Gershwin ME (2004) Surviving the butterfly and the wolf: mortality trends in systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun Rev 3:423–453PubMedCrossRef

10.

Hersh AO, Trupin L, Yazdany J, Panopalis P, Julian L, Katz P, Criswell LA, Yelin E (2010) Childhood-onset disease as a predictor of mortality in an adult cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res 62:1152–1159CrossRef

11.

Moss KE, Ioannou Y, Sultan SM, Haq I, Isenberg DA (2002) Outcome of a cohort of 300 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus attending a dedicated clinic for over two decades. Ann Rheum Dis 61:409–413PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

12.

Urowitz MB, Bookman AA, Koehler BE, Gordon DA, Smythe HA, Ogryzlo MA (1976) The bimodal mortality pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 60:221–225PubMedCrossRef

13.

Björnådal L, Yin L, Granath F, Klareskog L, Ekbom A (2004) Cardiovascular disease a hazard despite improved prognosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a Swedish population-based study 1964–95. J Rheumatol 31:713–719PubMed

14.

Bernatsky S, Boivin J-F, Joseph L, Manzi S, Ginzler E, Gladman DD, Urowitz M, Fortin PR, Petri M, Barr S, Gordon C, Bae SC, Isenberg D, Zoma A, Aranow C, Dooley MA, Nived O, Sturfelt G, Steinsson K, Alarcón G, Senécal J-L, Zummer M, Hanly J, Ensworth S, Pope J, Edworthy S, Rahman A, Sibley J, El-Gabalawy H, McCarthy T, St Pierre Y, Clarke A, Ramsey-Goldman R (2006) Mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 54:2550–2557PubMedCrossRef

15.

Ward MM (1999) Premature morbidity from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 42:338–346PubMedCrossRef

16.

Urowitz MB, Gladman D, Ibanez D, Bae SC, Sanchez-Guerrero J, Gordon C, Clarke A, Bernatsky S, Fortin PR, Hanly JG, Wallace DJ, Isenberg D, Rahman A, Alarcon GS, Merrill JT, Ginzler E, Khamashta M, Nived O, Sturfelt G, Bruce IN, Steinsson K, Manzi S, Ramsey-Goldman R, Dooley MA, Zoma A, Kalunian K, Ramos M, Van Vollenhoven RF, Aranow C, Stoll T, Petri M, Maddison P, Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics (2010) Atherosclerotic vascular events in a multinational inception cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res 62:881–887CrossRef

17.

Yiu K-H, Wang S, Mok M-Y, Ooi GC, Khong P-L, Mak K-FH, Lam K-F, Lau C-S, Tse H-F (2009) Pattern of arterial calcification in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 36:2212–2217PubMedCrossRef

18.

Salmon JE, Roman MJ (2008) Subclinical atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 121:S3–8PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

19.

Shang Q, Tam L, Li E, Yip G, Yu C (2008) Increased arterial stiffness correlated with disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 17:1096–1102PubMedCrossRef

20.

Colombo BM, Cacciapaglia F, Puntoni M, Murdaca G, Rossi E, Rodriguez G, Nobili F, Pisciotta L, Bertolini S, Moccetti T, Dentali F, Steidl L, Ciprandi G, Afeltra A, Indiveri F, Puppo F (2009) Traditional and non traditional risk factors in accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGATS Study). Autoimmun Rev 8:309–315PubMedCrossRef

21.

Plazak W, Gryga K, Dziedzic H, Tomkiewicz-Pajak L, Konieczynska M, Podolec P, Musial J (2011) Influence of atorvastatin on coronary calcifications and myocardial perfusion defects in systemic lupus erythematosus patients: a prospective, randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Res Ther 13:R117PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

22.

Sherer Y, Zinger H, Shoenfeld Y (2010) Atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmunity 43:98–102PubMedCrossRef

23.

Narshi CB, Giles IP, Rahman A (2011) The endothelium: an interface between autoimmunity and atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus? Lupus 20:5–13PubMedCrossRef

24.

Ardoin SP, Schanberg LE, Sandborg C, Yow E, Barnhart HX, Mieszkalski KL, Ilowite NT, von Scheven E, Eberhard A, Levy DM, Kimura Y, Silverman E, Bowyer SL, Punaro L, Singer NG, Sherry DD, McCurdy D, Klein-Gitelman M, Wallace C, Silver R, Wagner-Weiner L, Higgins GC, Brunner HI, Jung LK, Imundo L, Soep JB, Reed AM, APPLE investigators (2010) Laboratory markers of cardiovascular risk in pediatric SLE: the APPLE baseline cohort. Lupus 19:1315–1325PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

25.

Schanberg LE, Sandborg C, Barnhart HX, Ardoin SP, Yow E, Evans GW, Mieszkalski KL, Ilowite NT, Eberhard A, Levy DM, Kimura Y, von Scheven E, Silverman E, Bowyer SL, Punaro L, Singer NG, Sherry DD, McCurdy D, Klein-Gitelman M, Wallace C, Silver R, Wagner-Weiner L, Higgins GC, Brunner HI, Jung L, Soep JB, Reed A, Atherosclerosis Prevention in Pediatric Lupus Erythematosus Investigators (2009) Premature atherosclerosis in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus: risk factors for increased carotid intima-media thickness in the atherosclerosis prevention in pediatric lupus erythematosus cohort. Arthritis Rheum 60:1496–1507PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

26.

Ardoin SP, Schanberg LE, Sandborg CI, Barnhart HX, Evans GW, Yow E, Mieszkalski KL, Ilowite NT, Eberhard A, Imundo LF, Kimura Y, Levy D, von Scheven E, Silverman E, Bowyer SL, Punaro L, Singer NG, Sherry DD, McCurdy DK, Klein-Gitelman M, Wallace C, Silver RM, Wagner-Weiner L, Higgins GC, Brunner HI, Jung L, Soep JB, Reed AM, Thompson SD, APPLE investigators (2014) Secondary analysis of APPLE study suggests atorvastatin may reduce atherosclerosis progression in pubertal lupus patients with higher C reactive protein. Ann Rheum Dis 73:557–566PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

27.

Boros CA, Bradley TJ, Cheung MMH, Bargman JM, Russell JL, McCrindle BW, Adeli K, Hamilton J, Silverman ED (2011) Early determinants of atherosclerosis in paediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 29:575–581PubMed

28.

Sozeri B, Deveci M, Dincel N, Mir S (2013) The early cardiovascular changes in pediatric patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Pediatr Nephrol 28:471–476PubMedCrossRef

29.

El Gamal YM, Elmasry OAE, El Hadidi IS, Soliman OK (2013) Proximal aortic stiffness is increased in systemic lupus erythematosus activity in children and adolescents. ISRN Pediatr 2013:765253–5PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

30.

Quinlan C, Kari J, Pilkington C, Deanfield J, Shroff R, Marks SD, Tullus K (2015) The vascular phenotype of children with systemic lupus erythematosus. Pediatr Nephrol 30:1307–1316

31.

Kaplan MJ (2009) Premature vascular damage in systemic lupus erythematosus: an imbalance of damage and repair? Transl Res 154:61–69PubMedCrossRef

32.

Elshal M, Abdelaziz A, Abbas A, Mahmoud K, Fathy H, Mongy SE, El-Basyuoni S, Ahmed H, Mccoy P (2009) Quantification of circulating endothelial cells in peripheral blood of systemic lupus erythematosus patients: a simple and reproducible method of assessing endothelial injury and repair. Nephrol Dial Transplant 24:1495–1499PubMedCrossRef

33.

Speer MY, Yang H-Y, Brabb T, Leaf E, Look A, Lin W-L, Frutkin A, Dichek D, Giachelli CM (2009) Smooth muscle cells give rise to osteochondrogenic precursors and chondrocytes in calcifying arteries. Circ Res 104:733–741PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

34.

Pinho MM, Faria-Almeida R, Azevedo E, Manso MC, Martins L (2013) Periodontitis and atherosclerosis: an observational study. J Periodontal Res 48:452–457PubMedCrossRef

35.

Ravnskov U, McCully KS (2012) Infections may be causal in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Am J Med Sci 344:391–394PubMedCrossRef

36.

Gkaliagkousi E, Gavriilaki E, Doumas M, Petidis K, Aslanidis S, Stella D (2012) Cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. J Clin Rheumatol 18:422–430PubMedCrossRef

37.

Wong BW, Meredith A, Lin D, McManus BM (2012) The biological role of inflammation in atherosclerosis. Can J Cardiol 28:631–641PubMedCrossRef

38.

Gimbrone MA, Garcia-Cardena G (2013) Vascular endothelium, hemodynamics, and the pathobiology of atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc Pathol 22:9–15PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

39.

Hahn C, Schwartz MA (2009) Mechanotransduction in vascular physiology and atherogenesis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 10:53–62PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

40.

Korenaga R, Ando J, Kosaki K, Isshiki M, Takada Y, Kamiya A (1997) Negative transcriptional regulation of the VCAM-1 gene by fluid shear stress in murine endothelial cells. Am J Physiol 273:C1506–15PubMed

41.

Ando J, Tsuboi H, Korenaga R, Takahashi K, Kosaki K, Isshiki M, Tojo T, Takada Y, Kamiya A (1996) Differential display and cloning of shear stress-responsive messenger RNAs in human endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 225:347–351PubMedCrossRef

42.

Resnick N, Collins T, Atkinson W, Bonthron DT, Dewey CFJ, Gimbron MAJ (1993) Platelet-derived growth factor B chain promoter contains a cis-acting fluid shear-stress-responsive element. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90:7908PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

43.

McDonald SP, Craig JC, Australian and New Zealand Paediatric Nephrology Association (2004) Long-term survival of children with end-stage renal disease. N Engl J Med 350:2654–2662CrossRef

44.

Groothoff JW, Gruppen MP, Offringa M, Hutten J, Lilien MR, Van De Kar NJ, Wolff ED, Davin JC, Heymans HSA (2002) Mortality and causes of death of end-stage renal disease in children: a Dutch cohort study. Kidney Int 61:621–629PubMedCrossRef

45.

Zhu D, Mackenzie NCW, Shanahan CM, Shroff RC, Farquharson C, MacRae VE (2014) BMP-9 regulates the osteoblastic differentiation and calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells through an ALK1-mediated pathway. J Cell Mol Med 19:165–174PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

46.

Shroff RC, McNair R, Skepper JN, Figg N, Schurgers LJ, Deanfield J, Rees L, Shanahan CM (2010) Chronic mineral dysregulation promotes vascular smooth muscle cell adaptation and extracellular matrix calcification. J Am Soc Nephrol 21:103–112PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

47.

Shroff RC, Shanahan CM (2007) Vascular calcification in patients with kidney disease: the vascular biology of calcification. Semin Dial 20:103–109PubMedCrossRef

48.

Shroff RC, Donald AE, Hiorns MP, Watson A, Feather S, Milford D, Ellins EA, Storry C, Ridout D, Deanfield J, Rees L (2007) Mineral metabolism and vascular damage in children on dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 18:2996–3003PubMedCrossRef

49.

Shroff RC, Shah V, Hiorns MP, Schoppet M, Hofbauer LC, Hawa G, Schurgers LJ, Singhal A, Merryweather I, Brogan P, Shanahan C, Deanfield J, Rees L (2008) The circulating calcification inhibitors, fetuin-A and osteoprotegerin, but not matrix Gla protein, are associated with vascular stiffness and calcification in children on dialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 23:3263–3271PubMedCrossRef

50.

Shroff R, Quinlan C, Mitsnefes M (2011) Uraemic vasculopathy in children with chronic kidney disease: prevention or damage limitation? Pediatr Nephrol 26:853–865PubMedCrossRef

51.

Mitsnefes MM, Kimball TR, Kartal J, Witt SA, Glascock BJ, Khoury PR, Daniels SR (2005) Cardiac and vascular adaptation in pediatric patients with chronic kidney disease: role of calcium-phosphorus metabolism. J Am Soc Nephrol 16:2796–2803PubMedCrossRef

52.

Kranenburg AR, de Boer WI, Alagappan VKT, Sterk PJ, Sharma HS (2005) Enhanced bronchial expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and receptors (Flk-1 and Flt-1) in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 60:106–113PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

53.

Querfeld U, Anarat A, Bayazit AK, Bakkaloglu AS, Bilginer Y, Caliskan S, Civilibal M, Doyon A, Duzova A, Kracht D, Litwin M, Melk A, Mir S, Sozeri B, Shroff R, Zeller R, Wühl E, Schaefer F, 4C Study Group (2010) The cardiovascular comorbidity in children with chronic kidney disease (4C) study: objectives, design, and methodology. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5:1642–1648PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

54.

Santos MJ, Vinagre F, Silva JJ, Gil V, Fonseca JE (2010) Cardiovascular risk profile in systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis: a comparative study of female patients. Acta Reumatol Port 35:325–332PubMed

55.

Kiani AN, Post WS, Magder LS, Petri M (2011) Predictors of progression in atherosclerosis over 2 years in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology 50:2071–2079PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

56.

Sabio JM, Vargas-Hitos JA, Mediavilla JD, Navarrete-Navarrete N, Zamora-Posadas M, Perez-Vicente S, Hidalgo-Tenorio C, Diaz-Chamorro A, Jaimez L, Jimenez-Alonso J, Grupo Lupus Virgen de las Nieves (2010) Correlation of asymptomatic hyperuricaemia and serum uric acid levels with arterial stiffness in women with systemic lupus erythematosus without clinically evident atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Lupus 19:591–598PubMedCrossRef

57.

Sabio JA, Vargas-Hitos JA, Mario J (2010) Metabolic syndrome, endothelial injury, and subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: comments on the article by Mok et al. Scand J Rheumatol 39:527, author reply 527 PubMedCrossRef

58.

Sabio JM, Zamora-Pasadas M, Jimenez-Jaimez J, Albadalejo F, Vargas-Hitos J, Rodriguez del Aguila MDM, Hidalgo-Tenorio C, Gonzalez-Gay MA, Jimenez-Alonso J (2008) Metabolic syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus from southern Spain. Lupus 17:849–859PubMedCrossRef

59.

Sabio JM, Vargas-Hitos JA, Navarrete-Navarrete N, Mediavilla JD, Jimenez-Jaimez J, Diaz-Chamorro A, Jimenez-Alonso J (2011) Prevalence of and factors associated with hypertension in young and old women with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 38:1026–1032PubMedCrossRef

60.

Sabio JM, Mediavilla JD, Fernandez-Torres C, Aliaga L, Jimenez-Alonso J (2001) Risk factors related to hypertension in a Spanish systemic lupus erythematosus cohort. Lupus 10:451–452PubMedCrossRef

61.

Rhew EY, Manzi SM, Dyer AR, Kao AH, Danchenko N, Barinas-Mitchell E, Sutton-Tyrrell K, McPherson DD, Pearce W, Edmundowicz D, Kondos GT, Ramsey-Goldman R (2009) Differences in subclinical cardiovascular disease between African American and Caucasian women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Transl Res 153:51–59PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

62.

Ghosh P, Kumar A, Kumar S, Aggarwal A, Sinha N, Misra R (2009) Subclinical atherosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction in young South-Asian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 28:1259–1265PubMedCrossRef

63.

Alonso MD, Martínez-Vázquez F, Riancho-Zarrabeitia L, Díaz de Terán T, Miranda-Filloy JA, Blanco R, Gonzalez-Juanatey C, Llorca J, Gonzalez-Gay MA (2014) Sex differences in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus from Northwest Spain. Rheumatol Int 34:11–24PubMedCrossRef

64.

Olazagasti JM (2014) Critique and appraisal of a study on sex disparities in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol Int 34:1179–1180PubMedCrossRef

65.

Ding Y, He J, Guo J-P, Dai Y-J, Li C, Feng M, Li R, Li Z-G (2012) Gender differences are associated with the clinical features of systemic lupus erythematosus. Chin Med J 125:2477–2481PubMed

66.

Sekigawa I, Fujishiro M, Yamaguchi A, Kawasaki M, Inui A, Nozawa K, Takasaki Y, Takamori K, Ogawa H (2010) A new hypothesis of the possible mechanisms of gender differences in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 28:419–423PubMed

67.

Young NA, Wu L-C, Burd CJ, Friedman AK, Kaffenberger BH, Rajaram MVS, Schlesinger LS, James H, Shupnik MA, Jarjour WN (2014) Estrogen modulation of endosome-associated Toll-like receptor 8: an IFNα-independent mechanism of sex-bias in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Immunol 151:66–77PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

68.

Hsu C-Y, Chiu W-C, Yang T-S, Chen C-J, Chen Y-C, Lai H-M, Yu S-F, Su Y-J, Cheng T-T (2011) Age- and gender-related long-term renal outcome in patients with lupus nephritis. Lupus 20:1135–1141PubMedCrossRef

69.

de Carvalho JF, do Nascimento AP, Testagrossa LA, Barros RT, Bonfa E (2010) Male gender results in more severe lupus nephritis. Rheumatol Int 30:1311–1315PubMedCrossRef

70.

Wang Y-F, Xu Y-X, Tan Y, Yu F, Zhao M-H (2012) Clinicopathological characteristics and outcomes of male lupus nephritis in China. Lupus 21:1472–1481PubMedCrossRef

71.

de Leeuw K, Smit AJ, de Groot E, van Roon AM, Kallenberg CG, Bijl M (2009) Longitudinal study on premature atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Atherosclerosis 206:546–550PubMedCrossRef

72.

Johnson HM, Douglas PS, Srinivasan SR, Bond MG, Tang R, Li S, Chen W, Berenson GS, Stein JH (2007) Predictors of carotid intima-media thickness progression in young adults: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Stroke 38:900–905PubMedCrossRef

73.

Katz P, Gregorich S, Yazdany J, Trupin L, Julian L, Yelin E, Criswell LA (2011) Obesity and its measurement in a community-based sample of women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res 63:261–268CrossRef

74.

Sazliyana S, Mohd Shahrir MS, Kong NCT, Tan HJ, Hamidon BB, Azmi MT (2011) Thickened carotid intima media thickness and carotid atherosclerosis among lupus nephritis patients: the role of traditional and lupus-specific factors. Int J Rheum Dis 14:267–275PubMedCrossRef

75.

Yildiz M, Yildiz BS, Soy M, Tutkan H (2008) Impairment of arterial distensibility in premenopausal women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Kardiol Pol 66:1194–9, discussion 1200–1 PubMed

76.

Volkmann ER, Grossman JM, Sahakian LJ, Skaggs BJ, Fitzgerald J, Ragavendra N, Charles-Schoeman C, Chen W, Gorn A, Karpouzas G, Weisman M, Wallace DJ, Hahn BH, McMahon M (2010) Low physical activity is associated with proinflammatory high-density lipoprotein and increased subclinical atherosclerosis in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res 62:258–265CrossRef

77.

Balsamo S, Santos-Neto LD (2011) Fatigue in systemic lupus erythematosus: an association with reduced physical fitness. Autoimmun Rev 10:514–518PubMedCrossRef

78.

Katz P, Julian L, Tonner MC, Yazdany J, Trupin L, Yelin E, Criswell LA (2012) Physical activity, obesity, and cognitive impairment among women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res 64:502–510CrossRef

79.

Brooks D, Solway S, Gibbons WJ (2003) ATS statement on six-minute walk test. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 67:1287–1287CrossRef

80.

Balsamo S, Nascimento DDC, Tibana RA, de Santana FS, da Mota LMH, Dos Santos-Neto LL (2013) The quality of life of patients with lupus erythematosus influences cardiovascular capacity in 6-minute walk test. Rev Bras Reumatol 53:75–87PubMedCrossRef

81.

Balsamo S, da Mota LMH, de Carvalho JF, Nascimento DDC, Tibana RA, de Santana FS, Moreno RL, Gualano B, dos Santos-Neto L (2013) Low dynamic muscle strength and its associations with fatigue, functional performance, and quality of life in premenopausal patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and low disease activity: a case–control study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 14:263PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

82.

Mancuso CA, Perna M, Sargent AB, Salmon JE (2011) Perceptions and measurements of physical activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 20:231–242PubMedCrossRef

83.

Barnes JN, Nualnim N, Sugawara J, Sommerlad SM, Renzi CP, Tanaka H (2010) Arterial stiffening, wave reflection, and inflammation in habitually exercising systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Am J Hypertens 24:1194–1200CrossRef

84.

Barnes J, Nualnim N, Dhindsa M, Renzi C, Tanaka H (2014) Macro- and microvascular function in habitually exercising systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Scand J Rheumatol 43:209–216PubMedCrossRef

85.

Barnes JN, Tanaka H (2012) Cardiovascular benefits of habitual exercise in systemic lupus erythematosus: a review. Phys Sportsmed 40:43–48PubMedCrossRef

86.

Barnes JN, Nualnim N, Sugawara J, Sommerlad SM, Renzi CP, Tanaka H (2011) Arterial stiffening, wave reflection, and inflammation in habitually exercising systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Am J Hypertens 24:1194–1200PubMedCrossRef

87.

Krupp LB, LaRocca NG, Muir J, Steinberg AD (1990) A study of fatigue in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 17:1450–1452PubMed

88.

Lorenzo C, Williams K, Hunt KJ, Haffner SM (2007) The National Cholesterol Education Program - Adult Treatment Panel III, International Diabetes Federation, and World Health Organization definitions of the metabolic syndrome as predictors of incident cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Diabetes Care 30:8–13PubMedCrossRef

89.

Grundy SM (2005) Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement. Circulation 112:2735–2752PubMedCrossRef

90.

Mok C, Poon W, Lai J, Wong C, Chiu S, Lun S, Ko G, Lam C, Lam C (2010) Metabolic syndrome, endothelial injury, and subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand J Rheumatol 39:42–49PubMedCrossRef

91.

Tso TK, Huang W-N (2009) Elevation of fasting insulin and its association with cardiovascular disease risk in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol Int 29:735–742PubMedCrossRef

92.

Parker B, Bruce IN (2010) The metabolic syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheum Dis Clin N Am 36:81–97, viii CrossRef

93.

Sabio JM, Vargas-Hitos J, Zamora-Pasadas M, Mediavilla JD, Navarrete N, Ramirez A, Hidalgo-Tenorio C, Jaimez L, Martin J, Jimenez-Alonso J, Grupo Lupus Virgen de las Nieves (2009) Metabolic syndrome is associated with increased arterial stiffness and biomarkers of subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 36:2204–2211PubMedCrossRef

94.

Parker B, Ahmad Y, Shelmerdine J, Edlin H, Yates AP, Teh LS, Bruce IN (2011) An analysis of the metabolic syndrome phenotype in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 20:1459–1465PubMedCrossRef

95.

Parker B, Urowitz MB, Gladman DD, Lunt M, Bae S-C, Sanchez-Guerrero J, Romero-Diaz J, Gordon C, Wallace DJ, Clarke AE, Bernatsky S, Ginzler EM, Isenberg DA, Rahman A, Merrill JT, Alarcon GS, Fessler BJ, Fortin PR, Hanly JG, Petri M, Steinsson K, Dooley M-A, Manzi S, Khamashta MA, Ramsey-Goldman R, Zoma AA, Sturfelt GK, Nived O, Aranow C, Mackay M, Ramos-Casals M, van Vollenhoven RF, Kalunian KC, Ruiz-Irastorza G, Lim S, Kamen DL, Peschken CA, Inanc M, Bruce IN (2013) Clinical associations of the metabolic syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus: data from an international inception cohort. Ann Rheum Dis 72:1308–1314PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

96.

Wang H, Li T, Chen S, Gu Y, Ye S (2015) NETs mitochondrial DNA and its autoantibody in systemic lupus erythematosus and a proof-of-concept trial of metformin. Arthritis Rheum. doi:10.1002/art.39296

97.

Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, McCulloch CE, Hsu C-Y (2004) Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med 351:1296–1305PubMedCrossRef

98.

Sazliyana S, Mohd Shahrir MS, Kong CTN, Tan HJ, Hamidon BB, Azmi MT (2011) Implications of immunosuppressive agents in cardiovascular risks and carotid intima media thickness among lupus nephritis patients. Lupus 20:1260–1266PubMedCrossRef

99.

Kamen DL (2010) Vitamin D in lupus - new kid on the block? Bull NYU Hosp Jt Dis 68:218–222PubMedPubMedCentral

100.

Guillot X, Semerano L, Saidenberg-Kermanac’h N, Falgarone G, Boissier M-C (2010) Vitamin D and inflammation. Joint Bone Spine 77:552–557PubMedCrossRef

101.

Breslin LC, Magee PJ, Wallace JMW, McSorley EM (2011) An evaluation of vitamin D status in individuals with systemic lupus erythematosus. Proc Nutr Soc 70:399–407PubMedCrossRef

102.

Robinson AB, Thierry-Palmer M, Gibson KL, Rabinovich CE (2012) Disease activity, proteinuria, and vitamin D status in children with systemic lupus erythematosus and juvenile dermatomyositis. J Pediatr 160:297–302PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

103.

Bogaczewicz J, Sysa-Jedrzejowska A, Arkuszewska C, Zabek J, Kontny E, Wozniacka A (2010) Prevalence of autoantibodies directed against 1,25(OH)2D3 in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Pol Merkur Lek 28:103–107

104.

Bogaczewicz J, Sysa-Jedrzejowska A, Arkuszewska C, Zabek J, Kontny E, McCauliffe D, Wozniacka A (2012) Vitamin D status in systemic lupus erythematosus patients and its association with selected clinical and laboratory parameters. Lupus 21:477–484PubMedCrossRef

105.

Wu PW, Rhew EY, Dyer AR, Dunlop DD, Langman CB, Price H, Sutton-Tyrrell K, McPherson DD, Edmundowicz D, Kondos GT, Ramsey-Goldman R (2009) 25-hydroxyvitamin D and cardiovascular risk factors in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 61:1387–1395PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

106.

Mok CC, Birmingham DJ, Ho LY, Hebert LA, Rovin BH (2013) High-sensitivity C-reactive protein, disease activity, and cardiovascular risk factors in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res 65:441–447CrossRef

107.

Mathew S, Lund RJ, Chaudhary LR, Geurs T, Hruska KA (2008) Vitamin D receptor activators can protect against vascular calcification. J Am Soc Nephrol 19:1509–1519PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

108.

Shalhoub V, Shatzen E, Henley C, Boedigheimer M, McNinch J, Manoukian R, Damore M, Fitzpatrick D, Haas K, Twomey B, Kiaei P, Ward S, Lacey DL, Martin D (2006) Calcification inhibitors and Wnt signaling proteins are implicated in bovine artery smooth muscle cell calcification in the presence of phosphate and vitamin D sterols. Calcif Tissue Int 79:431–442PubMedCrossRef

109.

Lozovoy M, Simão A, Morimoto H, Iryioda T, Panis C, Reiche E, Borelli S, Oliveira S, Cecchini R, Dichi I (2014) Hypertension is associated with serologically active disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: role of increased Th1/Th2 ratio and oxidative stress. Scand J Rheumatol 43:59–62PubMedCrossRef

110.

Harrison DG, Vinh A, Lob H, Madhur MS (2010) Role of the adaptive immune system in hypertension. Curr Opin Pharmacol 10:203–207PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

111.

Harrison DG, Marvar PJ, Titze JM (2012) Vascular inflammatory cells in hypertension. Front Physiol 3:128PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

112.

Guzik TJ, Hoch NE, Brown KA, McCann LA, Rahman A, Dikalov S, Goronzy J, Weyand C, Harrison DG (2007) Role of the T cell in the genesis of angiotensin II induced hypertension and vascular dysfunction. J Exp Med 204:2449–2460PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

113.

Rodríguez-Iturbe B, Quiroz Y, Nava M, Bonet L, Chávez M, Herrera-Acosta J, Johnson RJ, Pons HA (2002) Reduction of renal immune cell infiltration results in blood pressure control in genetically hypertensive rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 282:F191–201PubMedCrossRef

114.

Von Feldt JM, Scalzi LV, Cucchiara AJ, Morthala S, Kealey C, Flagg SD, Genin A, Van Dyke AL, Nackos E, Chander A, Gehrie E, Cron RQ, Whitehead AS (2006) Homocysteine levels and disease duration independently correlate with coronary artery calcification in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 54:2220–2227CrossRef

115.

Von Feldt JM (2008) The cardiovascular threat of lupus. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 4:505CrossRef

116.

Becker-Merok A, Nossent J (2009) Prevalence, predictors and outcome of vascular damage in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 18:508–515PubMedCrossRef

117.

Petri M, Orbai A-M, Alarcon GS, Gordon C, Merrill JT, Fortin PR, Bruce IN, Isenberg D, Wallace DJ, Nived O, Sturfelt G, Ramsey-Goldman R, Bae S-C, Hanly JG, Sanchez-Guerrero J, Clarke A, Aranow C, Manzi S, Urowitz M, Gladman D, Kalunian K, Costner M, Werth VP, Zoma A, Bernatsky S, Ruiz-Irastorza G, Khamashta MA, Jacobsen S, Buyon JP, Maddison P, Dooley M-A, van Vollenhoven RF, Ginzler E, Stoll T, Peschken C, Jorizzo JL, Callen JP, Lim SS, Fessler BJ, Inanc M, Kamen DL, Rahman A, Steinsson K, Franks AG, Sigler L, Hameed S, Fang H, Pham N, Brey R, Weisman MH, McGwin G, Magder LS (2012) Derivation and validation of the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics classification criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 64:2677–2686PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

118.

Petri M, Purvey S, Fang H, Magder LS (2012) Predictors of organ damage in systemic lupus erythematosus: the Hopkins Lupus Cohort. Arthritis Rheum 64:4021–4028PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

119.

Kis E, Cseprekál O, Kerti A, Salvi P, Benetos A, Tisler A, Szabó A, Tulassay T, Reusz GS (2011) Measurement of pulse wave velocity in children and young adults: a comparative study using three different devices. Hypertens Res 34:1197–1202PubMedCrossRef

120.

Shroff R, Dégi A, Kerti A, Kis E, Cseprekál O, Tory K, Szabó AJ, Reusz GS (2013) Cardiovascular risk assessment in children with chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 28:875–884PubMedCrossRef

121.

Van Bortel LM, Duprez D, Starmans-Kool MJ, Safar ME, Giannattasio C, Cockcroft J, Kaiser DR, Thuillez C (2002) Clinical applications of arterial stiffness, Task Force III: recommendations for user procedures. Am J Hypertens 15:445–452PubMedCrossRef

122.

Reusz GS, Cseprekál O, Temmar M, Kis E, Cherif AB, Thaleb A, Fekete A, Szabó AJ, Benetos A, Salvi P (2010) Reference values of pulse wave velocity in healthy children and teenagers. Hypertension 56:217–224PubMedCrossRef

123.

Kracht D, Shroff R, Baig S, Jacobi C, Zeller R, Querfeld U, Schaefer F, Wühl E, Schmidt BMW, Melk A, 4C Study Consortium (2011) Validating a new oscillometric device for aortic pulse wave velocity measurements in children and adolescents. Am J Hypertens 24:1294–1299PubMedCrossRef

124.

Roman MJ, Crow MK, Lockshin MD, Devereux RB, Paget SA, Sammaritano L, Levine DM, Davis A, Salmon JE (2007) Rate and determinants of progression of atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 56:3412–3419PubMedCrossRef

125.

Expert Panel on Integrated Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Children and Adolescents (2011) Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents: summary report. Pediatrics 128(Suppl 5):S213–S256PubMedCentralCrossRef

126.

Ainsworth BE, Macera CA, Jones DA, Reis JP, Addy CL, Bowles HR, Kohl HW (2006) Comparison of the 2001 BRFSS and the IPAQ physical activity questionnaires. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38:1584–1592PubMedCrossRef

127.

Ainsworth BE, Bassett DR, Strath SJ, Swartz AM, O’Brien WL, Thompson RW, Jones DA, Macera CA, Kimsey CD (2000) Comparison of three methods for measuring the time spent in physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:S457–S464PubMedCrossRef

128.

Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjöström M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, Pratt M, Ekelund U, Yngve A, Sallis JF, Oja P (2003) International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:1381–1395PubMedCrossRef

129.

Azevedo MR, Araújo CL, Cozzensa da Silva M, Hallal PC (2007) Tracking of physical activity from adolescence to adulthood: a population-based study. Rev Saude Publica 41:69–75PubMedCrossRef

130.

Fogelholm M, Malmberg J, Suni J, Santtila M, Kyröläinen H, Mäntysaari M, Oja P (2006) International physical activity questionnaire: validity against fitness. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38:753–760PubMedCrossRef

131.

Hagströmer M, Oja P, Sjöström M (2006) The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ): a study of concurrent and construct validity. Public Health Nutr 9:755–762PubMedCrossRef

132.

Katano S, Nakamura Y, Nakamura A, Murakami Y, Tanaka T, Nakagawa H, Takebayashi T, Yamato H, Okayama A, Miura K, Okamura T, Ueshima H, HIPOP-OHP Research Group (2010) Relationship among physical activity, smoking, drinking and clustering of the metabolic syndrome diagnostic components. J Atheroscler Thromb 17:644–650PubMedCrossRef

133.

Rua-Figueroa I, Arencibia-Mireles O, Elvira M, Erausquin C, Ojeda S, Francisco F, Naranjo A, Rodríguez-Gallego C, Garcia-Laorden I, Rodríguez-Perez J, Rodríguez-Lozano C (2010) Factors involved in the progress of preclinical atherosclerosis associated with systemic lupus erythematosus: a 2-year longitudinal study. Ann Rheum Dis 69:1136–1139PubMedCrossRef

134.

Hunt BJ (2008) Pediatric antiphospholipid antibodies and antiphospholipid syndrome. Semin Thromb Hemost 34:274–281PubMedCrossRef

135.

Avcin T, Cimaz R, Rozman B, Ped-APS Registry Collaborative Group (2009) The Ped-APS Registry: the antiphospholipid syndrome in childhood. Lupus 18:894–899CrossRef

136.

Ahluwalia J, Singh S, Naseem S, Suri D, Rawat A, Gupta A, Masih J, Bose S (2014) Antiphospholipid antibodies in children with systemic lupus erythematosus: a long-term clinical and laboratory follow-up status study from northwest India. Rheumatol Int 34:669–673PubMedCrossRef

137.

Lambrianides A, Carroll CJ, Pierangeli SS, Pericleous C, Branch W, Rice J, Latchman DS, Townsend P, Isenberg DA, Rahman A, Giles IP (2010) Effects of polyclonal IgG derived from patients with different clinical types of the antiphospholipid syndrome on monocyte signaling pathways. J Immunol 184:6622–6628PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

138.

Charakida M, Jones A, Falaschetti E, Khan T, Finer N, Sattar N, Hingorani A, Lawlor DA, Smith GD, Deanfield JE (2012) Childhood obesity and vascular phenotypes: a population study. J Am Coll Cardiol 60:2643–2650PubMedCrossRef

139.

Ames PRJ, Batuca JR, Ciampa A, Iannaccone L, Delgado Alves J (2010) Clinical relevance of nitric oxide metabolites and nitrative stress in thrombotic primary antiphospholipid syndrome. J Rheumatol 37:2523–2530PubMedCrossRef

140.

Dal Ben ERR, do Prado CH, Baptista TSA, Bauer ME, Staub HL (2014) Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and secondary antiphospholipid syndrome have decreased numbers of circulating CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ Treg and CD3⁻CD19⁺ B cells. Rev Bras Reumatol 54:241–246PubMedCrossRef

141.

Charakida M, Besler C, Batuca JR, Sangle S, Marques S, Sousa M, Wang G, Tousoulis D, Delgado Alves J, Loukogeorgakis SP, Mackworth-Young C, D’Cruz D, Luscher T, Landmesser U, Deanfield JE (2009) Vascular abnormalities, paraoxonase activity, and dysfunctional HDL in primary antiphospholipid syndrome. JAMA 302:1210PubMedCrossRef

142.

MacGregor AJ, Dhillon VB, Binder A, Forte CA, Knight BC, Betteridge DJ, Isenberg DA (1992) Fasting lipids and anticardiolipin antibodies as risk factors for vascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 51:152–155PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

143.

Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ, Mujic F, Taub NA, Hunt BJ, Hughes GR (1995) The management of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med 332:993–997PubMedCrossRef

144.

Fonseca AG, D’Cruz DP (2008) Controversies in the antiphospholipid syndrome: can we ever stop warfarin? J Autoimmun Dis 5:6CrossRef

145.

Ferrara DE, Liu X, Espinola RG, Meroni PL, Abukhalaf I, Harris EN, Pierangeli SS (2003) Inhibition of the thrombogenic and inflammatory properties of antiphospholipid antibodies by fluvastatin in an in vivo animal model. Arthritis Rheum 48:3272–3279PubMedCrossRef

146.

Meroni PL, Raschi E, Testoni C, Tincani A, Balestrieri G, Molteni R, Khamashta MA, Tremoli E, Camera M (2001) Statins prevent endothelial cell activation induced by antiphospholipid (anti-beta2-glycoprotein I) antibodies: effect on the proadhesive and proinflammatory phenotype. Arthritis Rheum 44:2870–2878PubMedCrossRef

147.

Lopez-Pedrera C, Ruiz-Limon P, Aguirre MA, Rodriguez-Ariza A, Cuadrado MJ (2012) Potential use of statins in the treatment of antiphospholipid syndrome. Curr Rheumatol Rep 14:87–94PubMedCrossRef

148.

Fangtham M, Petri M (2013) 2013 update: Hopkins lupus cohort. Curr Rheumatol Rep 15:360PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

149.

Ioannou Y, Lambrianides A, Cambridge G, Leandro MJ, Edwards JCW, Isenberg DA (2008) B cell depletion therapy for patients with systemic lupus erythematosus results in a significant drop in anticardiolipin antibody titres. Ann Rheum Dis 67:425–426PubMedCrossRef

150.

Manzi S, Selzer F, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Fitzgerald SG, Rairie JE, Tracy RP, Kuller LH (1999) Prevalence and risk factors of carotid plaque in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 42:51–60PubMedCrossRef

151.

Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Galicier L, Aumaitre O, Frances C, Le Guern V, Liote F, Smail A, Limal N, Perard L, Desmurs-Clavel H, Boutin DLTH, Asli B, Kahn JE, Pourrat J, Sailler L, Ackermann F, Papo T, Sacre K, Fain O, Stirnemann J, Cacoub P, Jallouli M, Leroux G, Cohen-Bittan J, Tanguy ML, Hulot JS, Lechat P, Musset L, Amoura Z, Piette JC, on behalf of Group PLUS, Astudillo L, Belizna C, Belmatoug N, Benveniste O, Benyamine A, Bezanahary H, Blanco P, Bletry O, Bodaghi B, Bourgeois P, Brihaye B, Chatelus E, Damade R, Daugas E, de-Gennes C, Delfraissy JF, Delluc C, Delluc A, Duhaut P, Dupuy A, Durieu I, Hang-Korng E, Farge D, Funck-Brentano C, Gandjbakhch F, Gellen-Dautremer J, Ghillani-Dalbin P, Godeau B, Goujard C, Grandpeix C, Grange C, Grimaldi L, Guettrot-Imbert G, Guillevin L, Hachulla E, Harle JR, Haroche J, Hausfater P, Jouquan J, Kaplanski G, Keshtmand H, Khellaf M, Lambotte O, Launay D, Levesque H, Lidove O, Liozon E, Kim L, Mahevas M, Mariampillai K, Mariette X, Mathian A, Mazodier K, Michel M, Morel N, Mouthon L, Ngack R, Ninet J, Oksenhendler E, Pellegrin JL, Peyr O, Piette AM, Poindron V, Roux F, Saadoun D, Sahali S, Saint-Marcoux B, Sarrot-Reynauld F, Schoindre Y, Sellam J, Sene D, Serratrice J, Seve P, Sibilia J, Simon C, Sordet C, Terrier B, Trad S, Viallard JF, Vidal E, Wechsler B, Weiller PJ, Zahr N (2013) Hydroxychloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus: results of a French multicentre controlled trial (PLUS Study). Ann Rheum Dis 72:1786–1792PubMedCrossRef

152.

Sacre K, Criswell LA, McCune JM (2012) Hydroxychloroquine is associated with impaired interferon-alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 14:R155PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

153.

Tang C, Godfrey T, Stawell R, Nikpour M (2012) Hydroxychloroquine in lupus: emerging evidence supporting multiple beneficial effects. Intern Med J 42:968–978PubMed

154.

Kavanaugh A, Adams-Huet B, Jain R, Denke M, McFarlin J (1997) Hydroxychloroquine effects on lipoprotein profiles (the HELP trial): a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, pilot study in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Rheumatol 3:3–8PubMedCrossRef

155.

Tanay A, Leibovitz E, Frayman A, Zimlichman R, Shargorodsky M, Gavish D (2007) Vascular elasticity of systemic lupus erythematosus patients is associated with steroids and hydroxychloroquine treatment. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1108:24–34PubMedCrossRef

156.

Cairoli E, Rebella M, Danese N, Garra V, Borba EF (2012) Hydroxychloroquine reduces low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in systemic lupus erythematosus: a longitudinal evaluation of the lipid-lowering effect. Lupus 21:1178–1182PubMedCrossRef

157.

Roldan CA, Joson J, Qualls CR, Sharrar J, Sibbitt WL (2010) Premature aortic stiffness in systemic lupus erythematosus by transesophageal echocardiography. Lupus 19:1599–1605PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

158.

Pereira T, Abitbol CL, Seeherunvong W, Katsoufis C, Chandar J, Freundlich M, Zilleruelo G (2011) Three decades of progress in treating childhood-onset lupus nephritis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6:2192–2199PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

159.

Kallenberg CGM (2013) Could we abandon cyclophosphamide in systemic vasculitis and lupus nephritis? Ann Rheum Dis 72(Suppl 2):ii62–ii65PubMed

160.

Hogan J, Schwenk MH, Radhakrishnan J (2012) Should mycophenolate mofetil replace cyclophosphamide as first-line therapy for severe lupus nephritis? Kidney Int 82:1256–1260PubMedCrossRef

161.

Spagnoletti G, Citterio F, Favi E, Rossi E, Delreno F, De Santis I, Salerno MP, Gargiulo A, Castagneto M (2009) Cardiovascular risk profile in kidney transplant recipients treated with two immunosuppressive regimens: tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil versus everolimus and low-dose cyclosporine. Transplant Proc 41:1175–1177PubMedCrossRef

162.

Yap DYH, Ma MKM, Tang CS, Chan TM (2012) Proliferation signal inhibitors in the treatment of lupus nephritis: preliminary experience. Nephrology (Carlton) 17:676–680CrossRef

163.

van Leuven SI, van Wijk DF, Volger OL, de Vries J-PPM, van der Loos CM, de Kleijn DVP, Horrevoets AJG, Tak PP, van der Wal AC, de Boer OJ, Pasterkamp G, Hayden MR, Kastelein JJP, Stroes ES (2010) Mycophenolate mofetil attenuates plaque inflammation in patients with symptomatic carotid artery stenosis. Atherosclerosis 211:231–236PubMedCrossRef

164.

Richez C, Richards RJ, Duffau P, Weitzner Z, Andry CD, Rifkin IR, Aprahamian T (2013) The effect of mycophenolate mofetil on disease development in the gld.apoE (−/−) mouse model of accelerated atherosclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. PLoS ONE 8, e61042PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

165.

Witztum JL, Lichtman AH (2014) The influence of innate and adaptive immune responses on atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Pathol 9:73–102PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

166.

Rauch PJ, Chudnovskiy A, Robbins CS, Weber GF, Etzrodt M, Hilgendorf I, Tiglao E, Figueiredo J-L, Iwamoto Y, Theurl I, Gorbatov R, Waring MT, Chicoine AT, Mouded M, Pittet MJ, Nahrendorf M, Weissleder R, Swirski FK (2012) Innate response activator B cells protect against microbial sepsis. Science 335:597–601PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

167.

Shaposhnik Z, Wang X, Weinstein M, Bennett BJ, Lusis AJ (2007) Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor regulates dendritic cell content of atherosclerotic lesions. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 27:621–627PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

168.

Haghighat A, Weiss D, Whalin MK, Cowan DP, Taylor WR (2007) Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor exacerbate atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 115:2049–2054PubMedCrossRef

169.

Tullus K, Marks SD (2013) Indications for use and safety of rituximab in childhood renal diseases. Pediatr Nephrol 28:1001–1009PubMedCrossRef

170.

Weidenbusch M, Römmele C, Schröttle A, Anders H-J (2013) Beyond the LUNAR trial. Efficacy of rituximab in refractory lupus nephritis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 28:106–111PubMedCrossRef

171.

Specker C (2013) The LUNAR study: rituximab for lupus nephritis? Z Rheumatol 72:300–302PubMedCrossRef

172.

Merrill J, Buyon J, Furie R, Latinis K, Gordon C, Hsieh H-J, Brunetta P (2011) Assessment of flares in lupus patients enrolled in a phase II/III study of rituximab (EXPLORER). Lupus 20:709–716PubMedCrossRef

173.

Thacker SG, Duquaine D, Park J, Kaplan MJ (2010) Lupus-prone New Zealand Black/New Zealand White F1 mice display endothelial dysfunction and abnormal phenotype and function of endothelial progenitor cells. Lupus 19:288–299PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

174.

Mosak J, Furie R (2013) Breaking the ice in systemic lupus erythematosus: belimumab, a promising new therapy. Lupus 22:361–371PubMedCrossRef

175.

Mathieu S, Pereira B, Dubost J-J, Lusson J-R, Soubrier M (2012) No significant change in arterial stiffness in RA after 6 months and 1 year of rituximab treatment. Rheumatology 51:1107–1111PubMedCrossRef

176.

Gonzalez-Juanatey C, Llorca J, Vazquez-Rodriguez TR, Diaz-Varela N, Garcia-Quiroga H, Gonzalez-Gay MA (2008) Short-term improvement of endothelial function in rituximab-treated rheumatoid arthritis patients refractory to tumor necrosis factor alpha blocker therapy. Arthritis Rheum 59:1821–1824PubMedCrossRef

177.

Pego-Reigosa JM, Lu TY-T, Fontanillo MF, del Campo-Perez V, Rahman A, Isenberg DA (2010) Long-term improvement of lipid profile in patients with refractory systemic lupus erythematosus treated with B-cell depletion therapy: a retrospective observational study. Rheumatology 49:691–696PubMedCrossRef

178.

Taylor F, Huffman MD, Macedo AF, Moore THM, Burke M, Davey Smith G, Ward K, Ebrahim S (2013) Statins for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1, CD004816PubMed

179.

Waehre T (2004) Increased expression of interleukin-1 in coronary artery disease with downregulatory effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Circulation 109:1966–1972PubMedCrossRef

180.

Ravelli A (2012) Should children and adolescents with systemic lupus erythematosus be given statin therapy to prevent early atherosclerosis? Arthritis Rheum 64:33–36PubMedCrossRef

181.

van Leuven SI, Mendez-Fernandez YV, Stroes ES, Tak PP, Major AS (2011) Statin therapy in lupus-mediated atherogenesis: two birds with one stone? Ann Rheum Dis 70:245–248PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

182.

Lawman S, Mauri C, Jury EC, Cook HT, Ehrenstein MR (2004) Atorvastatin inhibits autoreactive B cell activation and delays lupus development in New Zealand black/white F1 mice. J Immunol 173:7641–7646PubMedCrossRef

183.

Woo JMP, Lin Z, Navab M, Van Dyck C, Trejo-Lopez Y, Woo KMT, Li H, Castellani LW, Wang X, Iikuni N, Rullo OJ, Wu H, La Cava A, Fogelman AM, Lusis AJ, Tsao BP (2010) Treatment with apolipoprotein A-1 mimetic peptide reduces lupus-like manifestations in a murine lupus model of accelerated atherosclerosis. Arthritis Res Ther 12:R93PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

184.

Petri MA, Kiani AN, Post W, Christopher-Stine L, Magder LS (2011) Lupus Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (LAPS). Ann Rheum Dis 70:760–765PubMedCrossRef

185.

Schanberg LE, Sandborg C, Barnhart HX, Ardoin SP, Yow E, Evans GW, Mieszkalski KL, Ilowite NT, Eberhard A, Imundo LF, Kimura Y, von Scheven E, Silverman E, Bowyer SL, Punaro M, Singer NG, Sherry DD, McCurdy D, Klein-Gitelman M, Wallace C, Silver R, Wagner-Weiner L, Higgins GC, Brunner HI, Jung L, Soep JB, Reed AM, Provenzale J, Thompson SD (2012) Use of atorvastatin in systemic lupus erythematosus in children and adolescents. Arthritis Rheum 64:285–296PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

186.

Kirou KA, Kalliolias GD (2010) A new tool for detection of type I interferon activation in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 12:138PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

187.

Nikpour M, Urowitz M, Ibanez D, Gladman D (2011) Relationship between cardiac symptoms, myocardial perfusion defects and coronary angiography findings in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 20:299–304PubMedCrossRef

188.

Plazak W, Pasowicz M, Kostkiewicz M, Podolec J, Tomkiewicz-Pajak L, Musial J, Podolec P (2011) Influence of chronic inflammation and autoimmunity on coronary calcifications and myocardial perfusion defects in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Inflamm Res 60:973–980PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

189.

Petri M (2004) The lupus anticoagulant is a risk factor for myocardial infarction (but not atherosclerosis): Hopkins Lupus Cohort. Thromb Res 114:593–595PubMedCrossRef

190.

Kümpers P, David S, Haubitz M, Hellpap J, Horn R, Bröcker V, Schiffer M, Haller H, Witte T (2009) The Tie2 receptor antagonist angiopoietin 2 facilitates vascular inflammation in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 68:1638–1643PubMedCrossRef

191.

Zardi EM, Afeltra A (2010) Endothelial dysfunction and vascular stiffness in systemic lupus erythematosus: are they early markers of subclinical atherosclerosis? Autoimmun Rev 9:684–686PubMedCrossRef

192.

Kluz J, Kopeć W, Jakobsche-Policht U, Adamiec R (2009) Circulating endothelial cells, endothelial apoptosis and soluble markers of endothelial dysfunction in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus-related vasculitis. Int Angiol 28:192–201PubMed

193.

Zhao W, Thacker SG, Hodgin JB, Zhang H, Wang JH, Park JL, Randolph A, Somers EC, Pennathur S, Kretzler M, Brosius FC, Kaplan MJ (2009) The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonist pioglitazone improves cardiometabolic risk and renal inflammation in murine lupus. J Immunol 183:2729–2740PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

194.

Ebner P, Picard F, Richter J, Darrelmann E, Schneider M, Strauer B-E, Brehm M (2010) Accumulation of VEGFR-2+/CD133+ cells and decreased number and impaired functionality of CD34+/VEGFR-2+ cells in patients with SLE. Rheumatology 49:63–72PubMedCrossRef

195.

Braun NA, Wade NS, Wakeland EK, Major AS (2008) Accelerated atherosclerosis is independent of feeding high fat diet in systemic lupus erythematosus-susceptible LDLr(−/−) mice. Lupus 17:1070–1078PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

196.

Lau DCW, Dhillon B, Yan H, Szmitko PE, Verma S (2005) Adipokines: molecular links between obesity and atherosclerosis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 288:H2031–H2041PubMedCrossRef

197.

Vadacca M, Margiotta D, Rigon A, Cacciapaglia F, Coppolino G, Amoroso A, Afeltra A (2009) Adipokines and systemic lupus erythematosus: relationship with metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease risk factors. J Rheumatol 36:295–297PubMedCrossRef

198.

Krysiak R, Handzlik-Orlik G, Okopien B (2012) The role of adipokines in connective tissue diseases. Eur J Nutr 51:513–528PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

199.

Vadacca M, Zardi EM, Margiotta D, Rigon A, Cacciapaglia F, Arcarese L, Buzzulini F, Amoroso A, Afeltra A (2013) Leptin, adiponectin and vascular stiffness parameters in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Intern Emerg Med 8:705–712PubMedCrossRef

200.

Vadacca M, Margiotta DPE, Navarini L, Afeltra A (2011) Leptin in immuno-rheumatological diseases. Cell Mol Immunol 8:203–212PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

201.

Moroni G, Novembrino C, Quaglini S, De Giuseppe R, Gallelli B, Uva V, Montanari V, Messa P, Bamonti F (2010) Oxidative stress and homocysteine metabolism in patients with lupus nephritis. Lupus 19:65–72PubMedCrossRef

202.

Li L, Mamputu J-C, Wiernsperger N, Renier G (2005) Signaling pathways involved in human vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression induced by leptin. Diabetes 54:2227–2234PubMedCrossRef

203.

McCullough PA, Agrawal V, Danielewicz E, Abela GS (2008) Accelerated atherosclerotic calcification and Monckeberg’s sclerosis: a continuum of advanced vascular pathology in chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3:1585–1598PubMedCrossRef

204.

Matarese G, Procaccini C, De Rosa V, Horvath TL, La Cava A (2010) Regulatory T cells in obesity: the leptin connection. Trends Mol Med 16:247–256PubMedCrossRef

205.

Procaccini C, De Rosa V, Galgani M, Carbone F, Cassano S, Greco D, Qian K, Auvinen P, Cali G, Stallone G, Formisano L, La Cava A, Matarese G (2012) Leptin-induced mTOR activation defines a specific molecular and transcriptional signature controlling CD4+ effector T cell responses. J Immunol 189:2941–2953PubMedCrossRef

206.

Toussirot E, Gaugler B, Bouhaddi M, Nguyen NU, Saas P, Dumoulin G (2010) Elevated adiponectin serum levels in women with systemic autoimmune diseases. Mediat Inflamm 2010:938408CrossRef

207.

McMahon M, Skaggs BJ, Sahakian L, Grossman J, Fitzgerald J, Ragavendra N, Charles-Schoeman C, Chernishof M, Gorn A, Witztum JL, Wong WK, Weisman M, Wallace DJ, La Cava A, Hahn BH (2011) High plasma leptin levels confer increased risk of atherosclerosis in women with systemic lupus erythematosus, and are associated with inflammatory oxidised lipids. Ann Rheum Dis 70:1619–1624PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

208.

Davies JD, Carpenter KLH, Challis IR, Figg NL, McNair R, Proudfoot D, Weissberg PL, Shanahan CM (2005) Adipocytic differentiation and liver x receptor pathways regulate the accumulation of triacylglycerols in human vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem 280:3911–3919PubMedCrossRef

209.

Kahlenberg JM, Kaplan MJ (2011) The interplay of inflammation and cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 13:203PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

210.

Keicho N, Matsushita I, Tanaka T, Shimbo T, Hang NTL, Sakurada S, Kobayashi N, Hijikata M, Thuong PH, Lien LT (2012) Circulating levels of adiponectin, leptin, fetuin-A and retinol-binding protein in patients with tuberculosis: markers of metabolism and inflammation. PLoS ONE 7, e38703PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

211.

Kadowaki T, Yamauchi T (2005) Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors. Endocr Rev 26:439–451PubMedCrossRef

212.

Wilk S, Scheibenbogen C, Bauer S, Jenke A, Rother M, Guerreiro M, Kudernatsch R, Goerner N, Poller W, Elligsen-Merkel D, Utku N, Magrane J, Volk HD, Skurk C (2011) Adiponectin is a negative regulator of antigen-activated T cells. Eur J Immunol 41:2323–2332PubMedCrossRef

213.

Okamoto Y, Christen T, Shimizu K, Asano K, Kihara S, Mitchell RN, Libby P (2009) Adiponectin inhibits allograft rejection in murine cardiac transplantation. Transplantation 88:879–883PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

214.

Okamoto Y, Folco EJ, Minami M, Wara AK, Feinberg MW, Sukhova GK, Colvin RA, Kihara S, Funahashi T, Luster AD, Libby P (2008) Adiponectin inhibits the production of CXC receptor 3 chemokine ligands in macrophages and reduces T-lymphocyte recruitment in atherogenesis. Circ Res 102:218–225PubMedCrossRef

215.

Tsang JYS, Li D, Ho D, Peng J, Xu A, Lamb J, Chen Y, Tam PKH (2011) Novel immunomodulatory effects of adiponectin on dendritic cell functions. Int Immunopharmacol 11:604–609PubMedCrossRef

216.

Jung MY, Kim H-S, Hong H-J, Youn B-S, Kim TS (2012) Adiponectin induces dendritic cell activation via PLCγ/JNK/NF-κB pathways, leading to Th1 and Th17 polarization. J Immunol 188:2592–2601PubMedCrossRef

217.

Kim K-Y, Kim JK, Han SH, Lim J-S, Kim KI, Cho DH, Lee M-S, Lee J-H, Yoon D-Y, Yoon SR, Chung JW, Choi I, Kim E, Yang Y (2006) Adiponectin is a negative regulator of NK cell cytotoxicity. J Immunol 176:5958–5964PubMedCrossRef

218.

Shoji T, Shinohara K, Hatsuda S, Kimoto E, Fukumoto S, Emoto M, Tahara H, Koyama H, Ishimura E, Miki T, Tabata T, Nishizawa Y (2005) Altered relationship between body fat and plasma adiponectin in end-stage renal disease. Metabolism 54:330–334PubMedCrossRef

219.

D’Anna R, Baviera G, Corrado F, Giordano D, De Vivo A, Nicocia G, Di Benedetto A (2006) Adiponectin and insulin resistance in early- and late-onset pre-eclampsia. BJOG 113:1264–1269PubMedCrossRef

220.

Haugen F, Drevon CA (2007) Activation of nuclear factor-kappaB by high molecular weight and globular adiponectin. Endocrinology 148:5478–5486PubMedCrossRef

221.

Heinrichsdorff J, Olefsky JM (2012) Fetuin-A: the missing link in lipid-induced inflammation. Nat Med 18:1182–1183PubMedCrossRef

222.

Yuce M, Davutoglu V, Cakici M (2010) Fetuin-A, osteoporosis and inflammation--proposal of possible mechanisms for vascular and valvular calcification in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25:2801, author reply 2801–2 PubMedCrossRef

223.

Komaba H, Fukagawa M (2009) Fetuin-mineral complex: a new potential biomarker for vascular calcification? Kidney Int 75:874–876PubMedCrossRef

224.

Emoto M, Mori K, Lee E, Kawano N, Yamazaki Y, Tsuchikura S, Morioka T, Koyama H, Shoji T, Inaba M, Nishizawa Y (2010) Fetuin-A and atherosclerotic calcified plaque in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism 59:873–878PubMedCrossRef

225.

Westenfeld R, Schäfer C, Krüger T, Haarmann C, Schurgers LJ, Reutelingsperger C, Ivanovski O, Drueke T, Massy ZA, Ketteler M, Floege J, Jahnen-Dechent W (2009) Fetuin-A protects against atherosclerotic calcification in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 20:1264–1274PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

226.

Shanahan CM (2005) Vascular calcification. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 14:361–367PubMedCrossRef

227.

Ix JH, Sharma K (2010) Mechanisms linking obesity, chronic kidney disease, and fatty liver disease: the roles of fetuin-a, adiponectin, and AMPK. J Am Soc Nephrol 21:406–412PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

228.

Mehrotra R, Westenfeld R, Christenson P, Budoff M, Ipp E, Takasu J, Gupta A, Norris K, Ketteler M, Adler S (2005) Serum fetuin-A in nondialyzed patients with diabetic nephropathy: relationship with coronary artery calcification. Kidney Int 67:1070–1077PubMedCrossRef

229.

Liu B, Yang Y, Dai J, Medzhitov R, Freudenberg MA, Zhang PL, Li Z (2006) TLR4 Up-regulation at protein or gene level is pathogenic for lupus-like autoimmune disease. J Immunol 177:6880–6888PubMedCrossRef

230.

Lartigue A, Colliou N, Calbo S, François A, Jacquot S, Arnoult C, Tron F, Gilbert D, Musette P (2009) Critical role of TLR2 and TLR4 in autoantibody production and glomerulonephritis in lpr mutation-induced mouse lupus. J Immunol 183:6207–6216PubMedCrossRef

231.

Li Y, Lee PY, Kellner ES, Paulus M, Switanek J, Xu Y, Zhuang H, Sobel ES, Segal MS, Satoh M, Reeves WH (2010) Monocyte surface expression of Fcgamma receptor RI (CD64), a biomarker reflecting type-I interferon levels in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 12:R90PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

232.

Thacker SG, Zhao W, Smith CK, Luo W, Wang H, Vivekanandan-Giri A, Rabquer BJ, Koch AE, Pennathur S, Davidson A, Eitzman DT, Kaplan MJ (2012) Type I interferons modulate vascular function, repair, thrombosis, and plaque progression in murine models of lupus and atherosclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 64:2975–2985PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

233.

Zhu S, Liu X, Li Y, Goldschmidt-Clermont PJ, Dong C (2007) Aging in the atherosclerosis milieu may accelerate the consumption of bone marrow endothelial progenitor cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 27:113–119PubMedCrossRef

234.

Lood C, Amisten S, Gullstrand B, Jonsen A, Allhorn M, Truedsson L, Sturfelt G, Erlinge D, Bengtsson AA (2010) Platelet transcriptional profile and protein expression in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: up-regulation of the type I interferon system is strongly associated with vascular disease. Blood 116:1951–1957PubMedCrossRef

235.

Huo Y, Schober A, Forlow SB, Smith DF, Hyman MC, Jung S, Littman DR, Weber C, Ley K (2003) Circulating activated platelets exacerbate atherosclerosis in mice deficient in apolipoprotein E. Nat Med 9:61–67PubMedCrossRef

236.

Li J, Fu Q, Cui H, Qu B, Pan W, Shen N, Bao C (2011) Interferon-α priming promotes lipid uptake and macrophage-derived foam cell formation: a novel link between interferon-α and atherosclerosis in lupus. Arthritis Rheum 63:492–502PubMedCrossRef

237.

Niessner A, Shin MS, Pryshchep O, Goronzy JJ, Chaikof EL, Weyand CM (2007) Synergistic proinflammatory effects of the antiviral cytokine interferon-alpha and Toll-like receptor 4 ligands in the atherosclerotic plaque. Circulation 116:2043–2052PubMedCrossRef

238.

Somers EC, Zhao W, Lewis EE, Wang L, Wing JJ, Sundaram B, Kazerooni EA, McCune WJ, Kaplan MJ (2010) Type I interferons Are associated with subclinical markers of cardiovascular disease in a cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus patients. PLoS ONE 7, e37000CrossRef

239.

Taleb S, Van Haaften R, Henegar C, Hukshorn C, Cancello R, Pelloux V, Hanczar B, Viguerie N, Langin D, Evelo C, Zucker J, Clément K, Saris WHM (2006) Microarray profiling of human white adipose tissue after exogenous leptin injection. Eur J Clin Invest 36:153–163PubMedCrossRef

240.

Singh IM, Shishehbor MH, Ansell BJ (2007) High-density lipoprotein as a therapeutic target: a systematic review. JAMA 298:786–798PubMedCrossRef

241.

Amarenco P, Labreuche J, Touboul P-J (2008) High-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and risk of stroke and carotid atherosclerosis: a systematic review. Atherosclerosis 196:489–496PubMedCrossRef

242.

Mureddu GF, Brandimarte F, De Luca L (2012) High-density lipoprotein levels and risk of cardiovascular events: a review. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 13:575–586CrossRef

243.

Weber C, Noels H (2011) Atherosclerosis: current pathogenesis and therapeutic options. Nat Med 17:1410–1422PubMedCrossRef

244.

Norata GD, Pirillo A, Ammirati E, Catapano AL (2012) Emerging role of high density lipoproteins as a player in the immune system. Atherosclerosis 220:11–21PubMedCrossRef

245.

Navab M, Anantharamaiah GM, Reddy ST, Van Lenten BJ, Fogelman AM (2009) HDL as a biomarker, potential therapeutic target, and therapy. Diabetes 58:2711–2717PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

246.

Imaizumi S, Navab M, Morgantini C, Charles-Schoeman C, Su F, Gao F, Kwon M, Ganapathy E, Meriwether D, Farias-Eisner R, Fogelman AM, Reddy ST (2011) Dysfunctional high-density lipoprotein and the potential of apolipoprotein A-1 mimetic peptides to normalize the composition and function of lipoproteins. Circ J 75:1533–1538PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

247.

Kavey R-EW, Allada V, Daniels SR, Hayman LL, McCrindle BW, Newburger JW, Parekh RS, Steinberger J, American Heart Association Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science, American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, American Heart Association Council on Nutrition Physical Activity and Metabolism, American Heart Association Council on High Blood Pressure Research, American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, American Heart Association Council on the Kidney in Heart Disease, Interdisciplinary Working Group on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research (2006) Cardiovascular risk reduction in high-risk pediatric patients: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science; the Councils on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Epidemiology and Prevention, Nutrition, Physical Activity and Metabolism, High Blood Pressure Research, Cardiovascular Nursing, and the Kidney in Heart Disease; and the Interdisciplinary Working Group on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation 114:2710–2738PubMedCrossRef

248.

Conroy RM, Pyörälä K, Fitzgerald AP, Sans S, Menotti A, De Backer G, De Bacquer D, Ducimetière P, Jousilahti P, Keil U, Njølstad I, Oganov RG, Thomsen T, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Tverdal A, Wedel H, Whincup P, Wilhelmsen L, Graham IM, SCORE project group (2003) Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project. Eur Heart J 24:987–1003PubMedCrossRef

249.

O’Neill SG, Pego-Reigosa JM, Hingorani AD, Bessant R, Isenberg DA, Rahman A (2009) Use of a strategy based on calculated risk scores in managing cardiovascular risk factors in a large British cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology 48:573–575PubMedCrossRef

250.

McMahon M, Grossman J, Skaggs B, Fitzgerald J, Sahakian L, Ragavendra N, Charles-Schoeman C, Watson K, Wong WK, Volkmann E, Chen W, Gorn A, Karpouzas G, Weisman M, Wallace DJ, Hahn BH (2009) Dysfunctional proinflammatory high-density lipoproteins confer increased risk of atherosclerosis in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 60:2428–2437PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

251.

Navab M, Reddy ST, Van Lenten BJ, Buga GM, Hough G, Wagner AC, Fogelman AM (2012) High-density lipoprotein and 4F peptide reduce systemic inflammation by modulating intestinal oxidized lipid metabolism: novel hypotheses and review of literature. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 32:2553–2560PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

252.

Mok CC, Wong CK, To CH, Lai JPS, Lam CS (2011) Effects of rosuvastatin on vascular biomarkers and carotid atherosclerosis in lupus: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res 63:875–883CrossRef

253.

Otocka-Kmiecik A, Mikhailidis DP, Nicholls SJ, Davidson M, Rysz J, Banach M (2012) Dysfunctional HDL: a novel important diagnostic and therapeutic target in cardiovascular disease? Prog Lipid Res 51:314–324PubMedCrossRef

254.

Ragbir S, Farmer JA (2010) Dysfunctional high-density lipoprotein and atherosclerosis. Curr Atheroscler Rep 12:343–348PubMedCrossRef

255.

Sala F, Catapano AL, Norata GD (2012) High density lipoproteins and atherosclerosis: emerging aspects. J Geriatr Cardiol 9:401–407PubMedPubMedCentral

256.

Vivekanandan-Giri A, Slocum JL, Byun J, Tang C, Sands RL, Gillespie BW, Heinecke JW, Saran R, Kaplan MJ, Pennathur S (2013) High density lipoprotein is targeted for oxidation by myeloperoxidase in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 72:1735–1731CrossRef

257.

Ettinger WH, Goldberg AP, Applebaum-Bowden D, Hazzard WR (1987) Dyslipoproteinemia in systemic lupus erythematosus. Effect of corticosteroids. Am J Med 83:503–508PubMedCrossRef

258.

Ilowite NT, Samuel P, Ginzler E, Jacobson MS (1988) Dyslipoproteinemia in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 31:859–863PubMedCrossRef

259.

Borba EF, Bonfa E (1997) Dyslipoproteinemias in systemic lupus erythematosus: influence of disease, activity, and anticardiolipin antibodies. Lupus 6:533–539PubMedCrossRef

260.

Skaggs BJ, Hahn BH, Sahakian L, Grossman J, McMahon M (2010) Dysfunctional, pro-inflammatory HDL directly upregulates monocyte PDGFRβ, chemotaxis and TNFα production. Clin Immunol 137:147–156PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Live-Webinar "Urologie und Sexualmedizin in der Praxis"

Springer Medizin

Why are kids with lupus at an increased risk of cardiovascular disease?

Abstract

Neu im Fachgebiet Pädiatrie

Mit dem Seitenschneider gegen das Reißverschluss-Malheur

Reanimation bei Kindern – besser vor Ort oder während Transport?

Alter der Mutter beeinflusst Risiko für kongenitale Anomalie

Begünstigt Bettruhe der Mutter doch das fetale Wachstum?

Update Pädiatrie

Live-Webinar "Urologie und Sexualmedizin in der Praxis"

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 6/2016

Erratum to: Health-related quality of life and mental health in parents of children with hemolytic uremic syndrome

Anti-VEGF-related thrombotic microangiopathy in a child presenting with nephrotic syndrome

Developmental changes of MPA exposure in children

An atypical case of acute kidney injury: Answers