Introduction
Methods
Eligibility criteria
Study identification and screening
Methodological quality
Data extraction
Data pooling
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Strong evidence: multiple HQ or MQ studies with consistent results.
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Moderate evidence: multiple studies, including at least one HQ study or multiple MQ studies, presenting consistent results.
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Limited evidence: multiple LQ studies with inconsistent results, or one HQ/MQ study.
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Conflicting evidence: multiple studies providing inconsistent results, regardless of the methodological quality.
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Very limited evidence: only one LQ or MQ study or multiple VLQ
Results
Search results
Methodological quality
Study Information | Study Ques. | Study Design | Measurement | Analyses | Rec | Total | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Author | Year | Ref | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | Q6 | Q7 | Q8 | Q9 | Q10 | Q11 | Q12 | /24 | % |
Abhayasinghe | 2019 | [20] | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 31.8%* |
Al-Amri | 2018 | [21] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 20 | 83.3% |
Allseits | 2018 | [22] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Allseits | 2017 | [23] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 15 | 68.2%* |
Aminian | 2004 | [24] | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 45.5%* |
Atallah | 2014 | [25] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Backhouse | 2013 | [26] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Bautmans | 2011 | [27] | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 18 | 75.0% |
Ben Mansour | 2015 | [28] | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 40.9%* |
Benoussaad | 2016 | [29] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 40.9%* |
Bertoli | 2018 | [30] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | N/A | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 16 | 72.7%* |
Bolink | 2016 | [31] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 16 | 72.7%* |
Bruijn | 2010 | [32] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 54.5%* |
Buganè | 2012 | [33] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 11 | 50.0%* |
Byun | 2016 | [34] | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 16 | 72.7%* |
Chalmers | 2014 | [35] | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 27.3%* |
Chapman | 2019 | [36] | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 45.5%* |
Charlton | 2019 | [37] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 21 | 87.5% |
Cole | 2014 | [38] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 68.2%* |
Cooper | 2009 | [39] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 36.4%* |
Dalton | 2013 | [40] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Del Din | 2016 | [41] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 68.2%* |
Esser | 2009 | [42] | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 36.4%* |
Furrer | 2015 | [43] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 68.2%* |
Godfrey | 2015 | [44] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 63.6%* |
Gonzalez | 2016 | [45] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 12 | 54.5%* |
Gorelick | 2009 | [46] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 18 | 75.0% |
Greene | 2012 | [47] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 63.6%* |
Greene | 2010 | [48] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Hamacher | 2014 | [49] | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 50.0% |
Hamacher | 2015 | [50] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 14 | 58.3% |
Hartmann | 2009 | [51] | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 17 | 77.3%* |
Hartmann | 2009 | [52] | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 18 | 75.0% |
Henriksen | 2004 | [53] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 16 | 66.7% |
Huang | 2016 | [54] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Hundza | 2014 | [55] | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 40.9%* |
Jarchi | 2014 | [56] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 63.6%* |
Karatsidis | 2019 | [57] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 63.6%* |
Kavanagh | 2006 | [58] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 19 | 79.2% |
Kitagawa | 2016 | [59] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 7 | 31.8%* |
Kluge | 2017 | [60] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 54.2% |
Köse | 2012 | [61] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 31.8%* |
Lebel | 2017 | [62] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 13 | 59.1%* |
L’Hermette | 2008 | [63] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 31.8%* |
Liikavainio | 2007 | [64] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 16 | 66.7% |
Liu | 2009 | [65] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 10 | 45.5%* |
Lord | 2008 | [66] | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 9 | 40.9%* |
Lyytinen | 2016 | [67] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 16 | 66.7% |
Maffiuletti | 2008 | [68] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 14 | 63.6%* |
Manor | 2018 | [69] | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 58.3% |
Mariani | 2012 | [70] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 14 | 63.6%* |
Mariani | 2013 | [71] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 59.1%* |
McGrath | 2012 | [72] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Moe-Nilssen | 1998 | [73] | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 58.3% |
Nishiguchi | 2012 | [74] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 50.0% |
Ohtako | 2001 | [75] | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 40.9%* |
Orlowski | 2017 | [76] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 18 | 75.0% |
Pepa | 2017 | [77] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 12 | 54.5%* |
Reynard | 2014 | [78] | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 17 | 70.8% |
Sabatini | 2015 | [79] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 15 | 68.2%* |
Saremi | 2006 | [80] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 54.2% |
Schmitz-Hübsch | 2016 | [81] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 12 | 54.5%* |
Sejdic | 2015 | [82] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 12 | 54.5%* |
Selles | 2005 | [83] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Senden | 2009 | [84] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 54.2% |
Sijobert | 2015 | [85] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 50.0%* |
Silsupadol | 2017 | [86] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 16 | 72.7%* |
Steins | 2014 | [87] | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | 50.0%* |
Storm | 2016 | [88] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 12 | 54.5%* |
Teufl | 2019 | [89] | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 58.3% |
Teufl | 2018 | [90] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 16 | 66.7% |
Trojaniello | 2014 | [91] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 45.5%* |
Trojaniello | 2014 | [92] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 15 | 68.2%* |
Trojaniello | 2015 | [93] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 14 | 63.6%* |
van der Straaten | 2018 | [94] | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 18 | 75.0% |
van Schooten | 2013 | [95] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 62.5% |
Washabaugh | 2017 | [96] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 58.3% |
Wundersitz | 2015 | [97] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 14 | 63.6%* |
Xia | 2017 | [98] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 59.1%* |
Zhang | 2013 | [99] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | N/A | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 40.9%* |
Zijlstra | 2013 | [100] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 62.5% |
Zijlstra | 2003 | [101] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | N/A | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 31.8%* |
Study characteristics
Author | Year | Ref | n | Age | ST | KIN | OTHER | Sensor | Hz | Gold Standard System |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abhayasinghe | 2019 | [20] | 19 | * | X | MPU-9150 (InvenSense) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Al-Amri | 2018 | [21] | 25 | 35 | X | Xsens MTw (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 60 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Allseits | 2017 | [23] | 11 | 32 | X | 3D gyroscope (no manufacturer listed) | 50 | Instrumented Walkway (Matscan, Tekscan, Inc., Boston, MA) | ||
Allseits | 2018 | [22] | 11 | 32 | X | 3D gyroscope (no manufacturer listed) | * | Instrumented Walkway (Matscan, Tekscan, Inc., Boston, MA) | ||
Aminian | 2004 | [24] | 9 | 63 | X | X | Physilog (BioAGM, CH) | 200 | Motion Capture Camera System and Force Plates (ELITE System, BTS, Milan, Italy) | |
Atallah | 2014 | [25] | 14 | 40 | X | 3D accelerometer (no manufacturer listed) | 130 | Instrumented Treadmill (h/p/cosmos, Munich, Germany) | ||
Backhouse | 2013 | [26] | 12 | 42 | X | IDEEA (MiniSun LLC., Fresno, CA) | * | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Ben Mansour | 2015 | [28] | 10 | 29 | X | MMA8453Q (Freescale Semiconductor); L3G4200D (STMicroelectronics) | 200 | Instrumented Treadmill (ADAL 3D, Medical Development, Tecmachine Hef, France) | ||
Benoussaad | 2016 | [29] | 10 | 27 | X | HikoB Fox (HikoB Villeurbanne, France) | 200 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Bertoli | 2018 | [30] | 80 | 74 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | 128 | Instrumented Walkway (Zeno Walkway, Prokinetics LLC., Havertown, PA) | ||
Bolink | 2016 | [31] | 17 | 26 | X | Microstrain Inertia-Link | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Bruijn | 2010 | [32] | 9 | * | X | PI-node (Philips, The Netherlands) | 50 | Motion Capture Camera System (Optotrak 3020, NDI, Waterloo, ON) | ||
Buganè | 2012 | [33] | 22 | 24/27 | X | Free4Act (F4A) | 50 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Byun | 2016 | [34] | 82 | 69 | X | FITMETER (FitLifeInc, Suwon, Korea) | 32 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Chalmers | 2014 | [35] | 11 | 22 | X | ADXL345 (Analog Devices); LPR450 (STMicroelectronics) | 60 | Motion Capture Camera System (No Brand Reported) | ||
Chapman | 2019 | [36] | 2 | 50 | X | APDM | 128 | Motion Capture Camera System (OptiTrack, Natural Point, Inc., Corvallis, OR) | ||
Cole | 2014 | [38] | 24 | 71/23 | X | Inertial Cube3 (InterSense Inc., Bedford, MA, USA) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Cooper | 2009 | [39] | 7 | 30 | X | IMU (no manufacture/model reported) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Qualisys, Sweden) | ||
Dalton | 2013 | [40] | 10 | 57 | X | X | AD_BRC | 250 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | |
Del Din | 2016 | [41] | 30 | 67 | X | Axivity AX3, UK | 50 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Esser | 2009 | [42] | 5 | 23 | X | Xsens MTx (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Qualisys, Göteborg, Sweden) | ||
Furrer | 2015 | [43] | 22 | 27 | X | Smartphone: Desire HD, HTC Corp, Taiwan | 50 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK); Force Plates (OR 6, AMTI, Watertown, MA) | ||
Godfrey | 2015 | [44] | 40Y/37O | 29/64 | X | Axivity AX3, UK | 100 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Gonzalez | 2016 | [45] | 5Y/5O | 24/68 | X | LPMS-B (LP Research, Japan) | * | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Greene | 2012 | [47] | 7 | * | X | Shimmer (Shimmer Sensing, Dublin, IR) | 102 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Greene | 2010 | [48] | 9 | 30 | X | Shimmer (Shimmer Sensing, Dublin, IR) | 102 | Motion Capture Camera System (CODA Motion Analysis Leicestershire, UK) | ||
Hartmann | 2009 | [51] | 23 | 77 | X | DynaPort (McRoberts BV, Hague, Netherlands) | 100 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Huang | 2016 | [54] | 13 | 30 | X | Invensense MPU6050 (San Jose, CA) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Hundza | 2014 | [55] | 7 | 30 | X | Microelectromechanical systems (no manufacture listed) | 40 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Jarchi | 2014 | [56] | 10 | * | X | E-AR Sensor (Sensixa Ltd., London, UK) | 130 | Instrumented Treadmill (Gaitway, Kistler Instrument Corp, Amherst, US) | ||
Karatsidis | 2019 | [57] | 11 | 31 | X | Xsens MVm (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 240 | Motion Capture Camera System (Qualisys, Göteborg, Sweden); Force Plates (OR 6, AMTI, Watertown, MA) | ||
Kitagawa | 2016 | [59] | 10 | 23 | X | TSND121 (ATR-Promotions, Japan) | 200 | Motion Capture Camera System (Motion Analysis Corp, Rohnert Park, CA) | ||
Köse | 2012 | [61] | 9 | 31 | X | Sensorize (FreeSense ApS, Denmark) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (BTS, Milan, Italy) | ||
Lebel | 2017 | [62] | 20 | 50 | X | IGS-180 (Synertial; Inertial Labs) | 60 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
L’Hermette | 2008 | [63] | 15 | 23 | X | X | ADXL105-EM3 (Analog Devices) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | |
Liu | 2009 | [65] | 8 | 25 | X | MM-2860 (Sunhayato, Japan) | * | Motion Capture Camera System (NAC Image Technology, Tokyo, Japan) | ||
Lord | 2008 | [66] | 11 | 73 | X | Vitaport Activity Monitor (TEMEC Instruments Inc., Netherlands) | 25 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Maffiuletti | 2008 | [68] | 10 | 34 | X | IDEEA (MiniSun LLC, Fresno, CA) | 32 | Force Plates (Kistler Instrumente AG, Winterthur, Switzerland) | ||
Manor | 2018 | [69] | 14 | 30 | X | iPhone 4 s (Apple, CA) | 100 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Mariani | 2012 | [70] | 12 | 32 | X | Physilog (BioAGM, CH) | 200 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Mariani | 2013 | [71] | 10 | * | X | Physilog (BioAGM, CH) | 200 | Pressure Insoles (Pedar-X, Novel, DE) | ||
McGrath | 2012 | [72] | 5 | * | X | Shimmer (Shimmer Sensing, Dublin, IR) | 102 | Motion Capture Camera System (CODA Motion Analysis, Leicestershire, UK) | ||
Ohtako | 2001 | [75] | 6 | * | X | ADXL05 (Analog Devices); ENC03J (Murata) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK); Force Plates (OR 6, AMTI, Watertown, MA) | ||
Pepa | 2017 | [77] | 11 | * | X | iPhone 4 s (Apple, CA) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (ELITE System, BTS, Milan, Italy) | ||
Sabatini | 2015 | [79] | 9 | 30 | X | BMA180 (Bosch); ITG-3200 (InvenSense); HMC5843 (Honeywell) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Saremi | 2006 | [80] | 8 | * | X | IDEEA (MiniSun LLC, Fresno, CA) | 32 | Pressure Insoles (B&L Engineering, Los Angeles, CA) | ||
Schmitz-Hübsch | 2016 | [81] | 9 | 50 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | 128 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Sejdic | 2015 | [82] | 14 | 74 | X | MMA7260Q (Freescale Semiconductor) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (OptiTrack, Natural Point, Inc., Corvallis, OR) | ||
Selles | 2005 | [83] | 10 | 29 | X | ICSensors 3021 (ICSensors Inc., Fremont, CA) | 500 | Force Plates (Kistler Instrumente AG, Winterthur, Switzerland) | ||
Sijobert | 2015 | [85] | 10 | * | X | HikoB Fox (HikoB Villeurbanne, France) | 200 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Silsupadol | 2017 | [86] | 34 | 23/74 | X | Vivo X5 (Android 4.4.4) | 100 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Steins | 2014 | [87] | 10 | 26 | X | iPod Touch 4th generation (Apple, CA) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Qualisys, Sweden) | ||
Storm | 2016 | [88] | 10 | 28 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | 128 | Pressure Insoles (F-Scan 3000E, Tekscan, Inc., Boston, MA) | ||
Teufl | 2019 | [89] | 24 | * | X | Xsens MTw Awinda (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 60 | Motion Capture Camera System (OptiTrack, Natural Point, Inc., Corvallis, OR) | ||
Teufl | 2018 | [90] | 28 | 24 | X | Xsens MTw Awinda (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 60 | Motion Capture Camera System (OptiTrack, Natural Point, Inc., Corvallis, OR) | ||
Trojaniello | 2014 | [91] | 14 | 32 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | 128 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK); Force Plates (OR 6, AMTI, Watertown, MA) | ||
Trojaniello | 2014 | [92] | 10 | 70 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | 128 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Trojaniello | 2015 | [93] | 10 | 70 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | 128 | Instrumented Walkway (GAITRite, CIR Systems Inc., Franklin, NJ) | ||
Washabaugh | 2017 | [96] | 11 | 24 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | * | Instrumented Treadmill (Bertec, Columbus, OH) | ||
Wundersitz | 2015 | [97] | 39 | 24 | X | Minimax S4 (Catapult Innovations, Australia) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Motion Analysis Corp, Rohnert Park, CA) | ||
Xia | 2017 | [98] | 14 | 25 | X | MPU9150 (Invensense, USA) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) | ||
Zhang | 2013 | [99] | 10 | 24 | X | Xsens MVm (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 100 | Motion Capture Camera System (Optotrak 3020, NDI, Waterloo, ON) | ||
Zijlstra | 2003 | [101] | 15 | 23 | X | Kistler accelerometer | 100 | Instrumented Treadmill (No Brand Reported) |
Author | Year | Ref | n | Age | ST | KIN | OTHER | Sensor | Hz |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al-Amri | 2018 | [21] | 24 | 35 | X | Xsens MTw Awinda (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 60 | ||
Bautmans | 2011 | [27] | 20O/20Y | 79/22 | X | X | DynaPort (McRoberts BV, The Hague, The Netherlands) | 100 | |
Charlton | 2019 | [37] | 20 | 28.3 | X | Invensense MPU6050 (San Jose, CA) | 100 | ||
Gorelick | 2009 | [46] | 8F/10M | 25/31 | X | IDEEA (MiniSun LLC., Fresno, CA) | * | ||
Hamacher | 2014 | [49] | 19 | 71 | X | Xsens MTw (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 75 | ||
Hamacher | 2015 | [50] | 17O/12Y | 71/26 | X | Xsens MTw (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 75 | ||
Hartmann | 2009 | [52] | 23 | 73 | X | DynaPort (McRoberts BV, The Hague, The Netherlands) | 100 | ||
Henriksen | 2004 | [53] | 20 | 35 | X | X | Meac-x (Mega Electronics Ltd., Kuopio, Finland) | 250 | |
Kavanagh | 2006 | [58] | 8 | 23 | X | ADXL202 (Analog Devices) | 250 | ||
Kluge | 2017 | [60] | 11 | 34 | X | Shimmer (Shimmer Sensing, Dublin, IR) | 102 | ||
Liikavainio | 2007 | [64] | 10 | 29 | X | X | Meac-x (Mega Electronics Ltd., Kuopio, Finland) | 2000 | |
Lyytinen | 2016 | [67] | 9 | 23 | X | Meac-x (Mega Electronics Ltd., Kuopio, Finland) | 1000 | ||
Manor | 2018 | [69] | 14 | 30 | X | iPhone 4 s (Apple, CA) | 100 | ||
Moe-Nilssen | 1998 | [73] | 19 | 23 | X | Logger Technologi HB (Ostragardsvagen, Sweden) | 128 | ||
Nishiguchi | 2012 | [74] | 30 | 21 | X | Sony Ericsson, Xperia SO-01B | 32 | ||
Orlowski | 2017 | [76] | 25 | 26 | X | Shimmer (Shimmer Sensing, Dublin, IR) | 102 | ||
Reynard | 2014 | [78] | 95 | 44 | X | Physilog (BioAGM, CH) | 200 | ||
Saremi | 2006 | [80] | 12 | 31 | X | IDEEA (MiniSun LLC., Fresno CA) | 32 | ||
Senden | 2009 | [84] | 24 | 21–60 | X | McRoberts BV (Hague, Netherlands) | 100 | ||
Teufl | 2019 | [89] | 24 | * | X | Xsens MTw Awinda (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 60 | ||
Teufl | 2018 | [90] | 28 | 24 | X | Xsens MVN (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | 60 | ||
van der Straaten | 2018 | [94] | 20 | 63 | X | Xsens MVN (Xsens Technologies BV, Netherlands) | * | ||
van Schooten | 2013 | [95] | 20 | 29 | X | DynaPort (McRoberts BV, Hague, Netherlands) | 100 | ||
Washabaugh | 2017 | [96] | 19 | 24 | X | Opal (Mobility Lab, APDM Inc., Portland, OR) | * | ||
Zijlstra | 2013 | [100] | 20 | 74 | X | DynaPort (McRoberts BV, Hague, Netherlands) | 100 |
Validity
Quantitative pooling of spatiotemporal outcomes for validity
Step time
Step length
Stance time
Swing time
Step time variability
Step length variability
Stance time variability
Swing time variability
Step time symmetry
Step length symmetry
Stance time symmetry
Reliability
Quantitative pooling of spatiotemporal outcomes for reliability
Stride time
Stride length
Stance time
Quantitative pooling of other biomechanical outcomes for reliability
Local dynamic stability
Discussion
Future directions
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IMUs consistently demonstrate at least moderate validity and reliability in assessing all mean spatiotemporal parameters. Further, excellent validity and reliability can be expected on measures of step and stride time and length measured at the back and lower limbs. Therefore, we do not recommend the need for future studies to address the validity and/or reliability of mean step and stride time and length during walking as a primary outcome.
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Measures of spatiotemporal parameter variability from IMUs demonstrate inconsistent levels of validity and reliability. However, these inconsistencies are more likely due to variable protocols (i.e., number of steps/trials) and processing techniques, rather than a flaw in the devices themselves. Therefore, future research should seek to identify optimal and standardized protocols and processing techniques best suited to assess measures of gait variability with IMUs.
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While joint kinematics generally demonstrate good to excellent validity and reliability in the frontal and sagittal plane, this information is often drawn from small studies with poor statistical measures. Future research in this area must improve study designs (e.g., justified sample sizes, appropriate statistical outcomes) in order to provide more high-quality evidence and recommendations on these important outcomes.
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Additional biomechanical outcomes such as a stability, regularity, and acceleration RMS demonstrate promising reliability. Unfortunately, much like gait variability, there is a lack information on optimal and standardized protocols. Moreover, similar to joint kinematics, there is a need for more high-quality study designs. Therefore, future research should seek to address the best practices for IMU measures such as stability, regularity, and acceleration RMS using appropriate sample sizes and statistical outcomes.