Besides the acquisition of specific genomic changes by tumor cells that enable their growth and survival, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the reverse mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) are generally considered as some of the most fundamental processes underlying cancer cell dissemination. EMT is usually reported as being essential for the initial stages of malignant transformation and tumor development at the primary site, whereas MET is believed to be pivotal for the later, metastatic stages and for the formation of secondary tumors at distant sites [
25]. Tumor cells undergo “type III EMT”, which differs from “type II EMT” that occurs during inflammation or fibrosis and “type I EMT”, which takes place under normal physiological conditions such as wound healing [
26‐
28]. During EMT tumor cells acquire a mesenchymal, migratory and invasive phenotype by losing their intercellular junctions (i.e., adherens junctions, tight junctions, desmosomal junctions and also, partially, gap junctions), typical molecular markers (E-cadherin, cytokeratins), cytoskeletal organization (changes in microtubules, actin filaments, β-filamin or talin), apical/basolateral polarity and, finally, contact inhibition [
27,
29‐
32]. At their primary site, tumor cells receive EMT promoting signals from activated stroma, while at metastatic sites such signals are weak or absent. Under the latter circumstances, metastatic tumor cells convert to an epithelial phenotype via MET. This process is also believed to support tumor-normal cell interactions at distant, metastatic sites, and to be facilitated by the stimulatory activity of the target organ parenchyma that induces the re-expression of E-cadherin. As a consequence, connections can be formed between neoplastic and normal cells. Such connections are very important for tumor cell survival within the new microenvironment [
32]. On the basis of direct and indirect, paracrine stimulations, tumor cells may enter a state of dormancy at the metastatic target site. Dormant cells are characterized by a low metabolic activity, a suppressed anoikis associated with the formation of cell heterotypic E-cadherin, and a resistance to cytostatics due to activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase ErbB4 and induction of the PI3K-Akt pathway [
25,
33‐
35]. Obviously, this is a simplified model of EMT-MET, and there are other factors that significantly promote not only EMT-MET, but also lymphangiogenesis and angiogenesis. Among them, the most important ones are α-SMA, whose increased expression by myofibroblasts has been associated with a high expression of N-cadherin, a LYVE-1-positive vessel count, and increased expression of VEGF, stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) also known as C-X-C motif chemokine 12 (CXCL12), insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2), hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) [
30,
36‐
39]. In addition, immune cells such as macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), mast cells and neutrophils may contribute to EMT/MET transitions and the formation of new vessels through the production of cytokines, growth factors or proteases [
30]. On the other hand, there are also molecules that may inhibit tumor angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis and invasion. One such molecule is KAI-1/CD82, which belongs to the tetraspanin family of proteins and is considered to be a metastasis suppressor. This molecule is localized on the cell membrane and interacts with integrins and chemokines responsible for the adhesion, signaling and mobility of cells. Decreased levels of KAI-1/CD82 have been linked to limited cancer cell invasiveness and the suppression of metastatic cell growth mainly through inhibition of β-catenin-mediated EMT [
40,
41]. Generally, molecules that are involved in EMT/MET transitions can be classified as EMT inducers (upstream cytokines and growth factors or receptors that initiate transition), EMT regulators (downstream transcription factors controlling the transition process) and EMT effectors (molecules that cause cell phenotype changes and endow cells with an invasive character) [
32,
42].
Although EMT and MET are widely recognized as being essential for tumor cell metastasis, they may proceed differently in different cancers due to diverse characteristics of the respective blood and lymphatic vessel systems. It has e.g. been shown that prostate and breast cancers isolated form sentinel lymph nodes exhibit an increased invasive potential without any upregulation of mesenchymal markers [
43,
44]. This finding confirms the concept that although mesenchymal transition contributes to the successful metastasis of tumor cells, lymph node dissemination does not per se require EMT [
45]. This notion may be explained by the fact that the structure of the lymphatic system does not force mesenchymal cells to increase their invasive phenotype. Moreover, EMT facilitates intravasation, whereas cells leaving the vessels (extravasation) do not require this process [
46]. Therefore, it may be concluded that in contrast to blood vessel dissemination, successful lymphatic migration may not require EMT. As such, EMT does not always appropriately imply the invasion of tumor cells and, although crucial, it is only one of the possible mechanisms underlying tumor cell metastasis.